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Although large body of research has demonstrated the attention-grabbing nature of threat-related stimuli, threat could also facilitate attentional processes. Previous studies suggest a linear relationship between the facilitating effect of the arousal level conveyed by threat and performance on visual search tasks. Due to the temporal competition bias favouring stimuli with higher arousal level, this could be more pronounced for shorter onset times. Here, through two experiments we aimed to disentangle the two effects by using a visual search paradigm that allowed us to separate the emotional stimuli and the cognitive task. We manipulated stimulus onset time and threat intensity. Participants saw neutral and threatening pictures as priming stimuli, and then, they had to find numbers in ascending order in a matrix array. We measured the reaction time for finding the first number, and search time for finding all the numbers. Our results showed that when the priming stimulus is presented, longer threatening pictures produced longer reaction times compared to neutral ones, which was reversed with increase in arousal. We did not find any significant effects for the shorter onset time. Further theoretical and methodological implications are discussed. Relevance and background of the study The study of attentional biases for threat has been a major theme in the research on the aetiology and maintenance of anxiety disorders (McNally, 2018). A large body of this research area demonstrated that threatening stimuli have a highlighted role in visual processing (

Highlights Self-esteem and social anxiety only indirectly predicted problematic social networking site (SNS) use and problematic internet use (PIU). Fear of negative evaluation mediated associations between social anxiety and self-esteem and both PIU and problematic SNS use. These indirect pathways might also highlight relevant differences behind the motivation of PIU – anonymity – and problematic SNS use – control.

The Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory has been widely used to measure state and trait components of anxiety. We sought to develop a short, yet reliable and valid form of these scales for use in circumstances where the full‐form is inappropriate. Using three large samples (total N = 3399, age-range = 16-90) we abbreviated the scales based on Item Response Theory analyses to retain the items that could discriminate the best among subjects. We calculated cut-off scores for the five-item short versions of state and trait scales using Receiver Operating Characteristic Curve analyses. The short forms have sound psychometric properties that are comparable to those obtained on the full-form. We report detailed descriptive statistics that could be used in further studies as standards. The short scales are reliable measures that could be used in clinical screening and in behavioural research; especially where practical considerations preclude the use of a longer questionnaire.