Aflatoxins produced by some species of Aspergillus are considered secondary toxic fungal by-products in feeds and food. Over the past few decades, many experts have focused on preventing the production of aflatoxins by Aspergillus ochraceus and also reducing its toxicity. Applications of various nanomaterials in preventing the production of these toxic aflatoxins have received a lot of attention recently. The purpose of this study was to ascertain the protective impact of Juglans-regia-mediated silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) against Aspergillus-ochraceus-induced toxicity by exhibiting strong antifungal activity in in vitro (wheat seeds) and in vivo (Albino rats) settings. For the synthesis of AgNPs, the leaf extract of J. regia enriched with high phenolic (72.68 ± 2.13 mg GAE/g DW) and flavonoid (18.89 ± 0.31 mg QE/g DW) contents was used. Synthesized AgNPs were characterized by various techniques, including TEM, EDX, FT-IR, and XRD, which revealed that the particles were spherical in shape with no agglomeration and fine particle size in the range of 16–20 nm. In vitro antifungal activity of AgNPs was tested on wheat grains by inhibiting the production of toxic aflatoxins by A. ochraceus. According to the results obtained from High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) and Thin-Layer Chromatography (TLC) analyses, there was a correlation between the concentration of AgNPs and a decrease in the production of aflatoxin G1, B1, and G2. For in vivo antifungal activity, Albino rats were administrated with different doses of AgNPs in five groups. The results indicated that the feed concentration of 50 µg/kg feed of AgNPs was more effective in improving the disturbed levels of different functional parameters of the liver (alanine transaminase (ALT): 54.0 ± 3.79 U/L and aspartate transaminase (AST): 206 ± 8.69 U/L) and kidney (creatinine 0.49 ± 0.020 U/L and BUN 35.7 ± 1.45 U/L), as well as the lipid profile (LDL 22.3 ± 1.45 U/L and HDL 26.3 ± 2.33 U/L). Furthermore, the histopathological analysis of various organs also revealed that the production of aflatoxins was successfully inhibited by AgNPs. It was concluded that the harmful effects of aflatoxins produced by A. ochraceus can be successfully neutralized by using J. regia-mediated AgNPs.
Skin scarring is a natural process of healing and represents a massive burden on individuals and societies .Scars appear due to sealing of an open skin that occurs more quickly than the normal skin growing process. Depending on the place where scars form, people may suffer severe issues like not able to bend their joints, open or close their mouth parts and lastly suffer from social stigma. A scar is not bad if it is small, not visible or easy to heal. But it is astonishing that recent researches have opened up new ways for us to treat scars instead of hiding them under clothes. Recently, scientists suggested the critical role of tension during process of scarring. They observed that early in the fetal developmental stage, when the skin is more gelatinous (less tight), the skin injury does not lead to scarring and likewise, at the older age (95 years) scarring is minimal due to less tightening of skin. Now, the questions arise; why and how tension in the skin induces scar formation during healing? The gene named "engrailed" helps produce a protein (sometimes found in fibroblast; a skin cell) that stimulates scar formation. Researchers observed that fibroblasts did not expressed engrailed when grown on tension-free gel; but the expression occurs when grown on stress-inducing plastic. In the later case, inhibition in expression of engrailed was observed after addition of a chemical which inhibit mechanical strain signaling. Similarly, a number of studies in mice suggested crucial role of tension in induction of scarring. For a successful wound healing therapy, three outcomes are important to be true skin regeneration; appearance of normal hair follicles and glands, normal epidermal appearance under microscope and regenerated skin needs to be as strong as normal skin. Concurrent to these outcomes, scientists are working with mice by blocking mechanical stress signals with U.S approved drugs and waiting for next stage with pre-clinical trials with other mammalian species. In summary, with the rising social and financial burdens of scarring, advancements in the research inspire novel therapies to tackle outcomes of scar formation. Recent studies focus on the role of mechanical forces during scarring whereas, clinical trials favor minimizing tension may led to minimal scar formation. However, tension free therapies for scar reduction persist various limitations and sometimes, not applicable. It is also noteworthy that considerable differences between the mouse and human skin may limit the applications of clinical findings.
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