We report here the inactivation of a member of the Ice/Ced-3 (caspase) family of cell death genes, casp-11, by gene targeting. Like Ice-deficient mice, casp-11 mutant mice are resistant to endotoxic shock induced by lipopolysaccharide. Production of both IL-1alpha and IL-1beta after lipopolysaccharide stimulation, a crucial event during septic shock and an indication of ICE activation, is blocked in casp-11 mutant mice. casp-11 mutant embryonic fibroblast cells are resistant to apoptosis induced by overexpression of ICE. Furthermore, we found that pro-caspase-11 physically interacts with pro-ICE in cells, and the expression of casp-11 is essential for activation of ICE. Our data suggest that caspase-11 is a component of ICE complex and is required for the activation of ICE.

Caspase-11, a member of the murine caspase family, has been shown to be an upstream activator of caspase-1 in regulating cytokine maturation. We demonstrate here that in addition to its defect in cytokine maturation, caspase-11–deficient mice have a reduced number of apoptotic cells and a defect in caspase-3 activation after middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO), a mouse model of stroke. Recombinant procaspase-11 can autoprocess itself in vitro. Purified active recombinant caspase-11 cleaves and activates procaspase-3 very efficiently. Using a positional scanning combinatorial library method, we found that the optimal cleavage site of caspase-11 was (I/L/V/P)EHD, similar to that of upstream caspases such as caspase-8 and -9. Our results suggest that caspase-11 is a critical initiator caspase responsible for the activation of caspase-3, as well as caspase-1 under certain pathological conditions.

We report here the isolation and characterization of a new member of the ice/ced-3 family of cell death genes, named ich-3. The predicted amino acid sequence of Ich-3 protein shares 54% identity with murine interleukin-1␤ converting enzyme (ICE). Overexpression of ich-3 in Rat-1 and HeLa cells induces apoptosis, which can be inhibited by CrmA and Bcl-2. The mRNA and proteins of ich-3 are dramatically induced in vivo upon stimulation with lipopolysaccharide, an inducer of septic shock. The ich-3 gene product can be cleaved by cytotoxic T cells granule serine protease granzyme B, suggesting that Ich-3 may mediate apoptosis induced by granzyme B. Ich-3 does not process proIL-1␤ directly but does promote proIL-1␤ processing by ICE. These results suggest that Ich-3 may play a very important role in apoptosis and inflammatory responses and may be an upstream regulator of ICE. Interleukin-1␤ converting enzyme (ICE)1 family is a growing family of cysteine proteases involved in cytokine maturation and apoptosis (1). ICE is a cytoplasmic cysteine protease responsible for proteolytically processing pro-interleukin-1␤ (31 kDa) into active form (17 kDa) (2). The amino acid sequence of ICE shares 29% identity with Caenorhabditis elegans cell death gene product Ced-3 (3). Expression of ice in a number of mammalian cell lines induces apoptosis (4, 5). Microinjection of an expression vector of crmA, a cowpox virus gene encoding a serpin that is a specific inhibitor of ICE, prevents death of neurons of dorsal root ganglia and ciliary ganglia induced by trophic factor deprivation (6, 7). Expression of crmA can also suppress apoptosis induced by . These experiments suggest that the members of the ICE family play important roles in controlling mammalian apoptosis.Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) are important players in host cell-mediated immunity (12). Granzyme B (GraB) is a serine protease that plays a major role in apoptosis induced by CTLs because mice that are deficient for GraB generated by gene targeting technique are severely defective in CTL-induced apoptosis (13). GraB can induce apoptosis of many if not all cell types in the presence of pore forming protein perforin (14, 15). A recent report showed that CPP32, a member of the ICE family, is activated by cytotoxic T-cell-derived GraB, suggesting that CPP32 is important for CTL killing (16). CPP32, however, cannot be the only ICE family activated by CTL because CrmA is a very poor inhibitor of CPP32 (17). Tewari et al. (18) showed that expression of crmA completely blocks the Ca 2ϩ -independent component of CTL killing (i.e. Fas-mediated); if CPP32 were the only ICE family member responsible for CTL cytotoxicity, expression of crmA should not suppress CTL killing. We predict that there are additional members of the ICE family that play an important role in CTL-induced apoptosis. The amino acid sequence of GraB is not homologous with ICE; however, GraB and ICE share many enzymatic similarities. Like ICE, GraB requires Asp at P1 position for cleavage. Inhibitors of ICE or the ...

Celiac disease (CeD), caused by immune reactions to cereal gluten, is treated with gluten -elimination diets. Within hours of gluten exposure, either perorally or extraorally by intradermal injection, treated patients experience gastrointestinal symptoms. To test whether gluten exposure leads to systemic cytokine production time -related to symptoms, series of multiplex cytokine measurements were obtained in CeD patients after gluten challenge. Peptide injection elevated at least 15 plasma cytokines, with IL-2, IL-8, and IL-10 being most prominent (fold-change increase at 4 hours of 272, 11, and 1.2, respectively). IL-2 and IL-8 were the only cytokines elevated at 2 hours, preceding onset of symptoms. After gluten ingestion, IL-2 was the earliest and most prominent cytokine (15-fold change at 4 hours). Supported by studies of patient-derived gluten-specific T cell clones and primary lymphocytes, our observations indicate that gluten-specific CD4+ T cells are rapidly reactivated by antigen -exposure likely causing CeD-associated gastrointestinal symptoms.

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SUMMARY Background Gluten-free diet (GFD) is the only management available for celiac disease (CeD), a permanent immune intolerance to gluten. Nexvax2® is the first therapeutic vaccine designed to treat CeD. The adjuvant-free formulation of peptides is intended to engage and render gluten-specific CD4+ T cells unresponsive to further antigenic stimulation. We have assessed safety and pharmacodynamics of Nexvax2® in patients with CeD on GFD. Methods In two randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 1 studies at 12 community sites in Australia, New Zealand and the United States, we screened for HLA-DQ2·5+ CeD patients (aged 18–70 years) on GFD. The screening and post-treatment periods included either a crossover, placebo-controlled, oral gluten challenge (OGC) to mobilize and assess T cells responsive to Nexvax2 or, for the final cohort in each study, endoscopy and duodenal histology without OGC. Participants and study staff were masked to the gluten content of food provided for each interval of the OGCs. One of two sequences of active and placebo challenges was assigned (1:1) by central randomization using a simple block method. The sequence of challenges was active/placebo then active/placebo, or placebo/active then active/placebo for the OGCs in the screening and post-treatment periods, respectively. Participants with a negative interferon (IFN)-γ release assay (IGRA) to Nexvax2 peptides after the screening OGC, or Marsh score >1 were discontinued before dosing. There was temporal allocation of participants to sequential cohorts assessing multiple fixed intradermal doses of Nexvax2 (60µg, 90µg, or 150µg weekly in the 3-dose study; or 150µg, or 300µg two-times weekly in the 16-dose study) in 0.1 mL 0.9% sodium chloride. A maximum tolerated dose (MTD) was administered in the final biopsy cohort in each study. Participants within each cohort were assigned to receive Nexvax2 or placebo by central randomization (2:1, respectively) using simple block method in SAS software Version 9·2. Participants, investigators, and study staff were masked to the treatment assignment, except for the study pharmacist. The primary endpoint was the number and percentage of adverse events in the treatment period. Other safety outcomes included duodenal histology, gastrointestinal symptoms, plasma cytokines, and immune cell frequencies. The main pharmacodynamic endpoint was IGRA to Nexvax2 peptides. All participants who received Nexvax2 or placebo, the safety population, were included in an intention to treat analysis for the primary endpoint. Additional post hoc analyses were also performed. Both trials were completed and closed before data analysis. Trials were registered with Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry, numbers ACTRN12612000355875 and ACTRN12613001331729. Findings Participants were screened from November 28, 2012 to August 14, 2014, and August 3, 2012 to September 10, 2013, for the 3-dose and 16-dose studies respectively. Across both studies, 136 (80%) of 169 volunteers met initial eligibility crite...

Ertiprotafib belongs to a novel class of insulin sensitizers developed for treatment of type 2 diabetes. In insulin-resistant rodent models, ertiprotafib and a close analog lowered both fasting blood glucose and insulin levels and improved glycemic excursion during an oral glucose tolerance test. In addition, treatment of rodents improved lipid profiles, with significantly lowered triglyceride and free fatty acid levels. These results suggested that this therapeutic activity might involve mechanisms in addition to PTP1b inhibition. In this study, we demonstrate that ertiprotafib activates peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)␣ and PPAR␥ at concentrations comparable with those of known agonists of these regulators.Furthermore, it is able to drive adipocyte differentiation of C3H10T 1/2 cells, a hallmark of PPAR␥ activation. Livers from ertiprotafib-treated animals showed significant induction of acyl-CoA oxidase activity, probably caused by PPAR␣ engagement in these animals. We also show that ertiprotafib inhibits PTP1b in vitro with nonclassic kinetics at concentrations above its EC 50 for PPAR agonism. Thus, the complete mechanism of action for ertiprotafib and related compounds in vivo may involve multiple independent mechanisms, including (but not necessarily limited to) PTP1b inhibition and dual PPAR␣/ PPAR␥ agonism. Ertiprotafib pharmacology and interpretation of clinical results must be seen in light of this complexity.

The interaction of co-stimulatory molecules on T cells with B7 molecules on antigen presenting cells plays an important role in the activation of naive T cells. Consequently, agents that disrupt these interactions should have applications in treatment of transplant rejection as well as autoimmune diseases. To this end, specific small molecule inhibitors of human B7.1 were identified and characterized. These compounds inhibit the binding of B7.1 to both CD28 and CTLA4. Both classes of compounds appear to bind the same site, a relatively small portion of the GFCCC؆ face of the N-terminal Vset domain of human B7.1, not present in the homologous B7.2 or even mouse B7.1. This site may represent a rare hot spot for small molecule antagonist design of inhibitors of cell-cell interactions, whose ligands may yield leads for the development of novel immunomodulatory medicines.