Endophytes are a potent source of bioactive compounds that mimic plant-based metabolites. The relationship of host plant and endophyte is significantly associated with alteration in fungal colonisation and the extraction of endophyte-derived bioactive compounds. Screening of fungal endophytes and their relationship with host plants is essential for the isolation of bioactive compounds. Numerous bioactive compounds with antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticancer, and immunomodulatory properties are known to be derived from fungal endophytes. Bioinformatics tools along with the latest techniques such as metabolomics, next-generation sequencing, and metagenomics multilocus sequence typing can potentially fill the gaps in fungal endophyte research. The current review article focuses on bioactive compounds derived from plantassociated fungal endophytes and their pharmacological importance. We conclude with the challenges and opportunities in the research area of fungal endophytes.
Similar to the majority of the microRNAs, mature miR166s are derived from multiple members of MIR166 genes (precursors) and regulate various aspects of plant development by negatively regulating their target genes (Class III HD-ZIP). The evolutionary conservation or functional diversification of miRNA166 family members remains elusive. Here, we show the phylogenetic relationships among MIR166 precursor and mature sequences from three diverse model plant species. Despite strong conservation, some mature miR166 sequences, such as ppt-miR166m, have undergone sequence variation. Critical sequence variation in ppt-miR166m has led to functional diversification, as it targets non-HD-ZIPIII gene transcript (s). MIR166 precursor sequences have diverged in a lineage specific manner, and both precursors and mature osa-miR166i/j are highly conserved. Interestingly, polycistronic MIR166s were present in Physcomitrella and Oryza but not in Arabidopsis. The nature of cis-regulatory motifs on the upstream promoter sequences of MIR166 genes indicates their possible contribution to the functional variation observed among miR166 species.
microRNAs (miRNAs), a class of endogenously produced small non-coding RNAs of 20–21 nt length, processed from precursor miRNAs, regulate many developmental processes by negatively regulating the target genes in both animals and plants. The coevolutionary pattern of a miRNA family and their targets underscores its functional conservation or diversification. The miR167 regulates various aspects of plant development in Arabidopsis by targeting ARF6 and ARF8. The evolutionary conservation or divergence of miR167s and their target genes are poorly understood till now. Here we show the evolutionary relationship among 153 MIR167 genes obtained from 33 diverse plant species. We found that out of the 153 of miR167 sequences retrieved from the “miRBase”, 27 have been annotated to be processed from the 3′ end, and have diverged distinctively from the other miR167s produced from 5′ end. Our analysis reveals that gma-miR167h/i and mdm-miR167a are processed from 3′ end and have evolved separately, diverged most resulting in novel targets other than their known ones, and thus led to functional diversification, especially in apple and soybean. We also show that mostly conserved miR167 sequences and their target AUXIN RESPONSE FACTORS (ARFs) have gone through parallel evolution leading to functional diversification among diverse plant species.
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