Linköping University Post PrintIs the neighbourhood effect an economic or an immigrant issue? A study of the importance of the childhood neighbourhood for future integration into the labour market IntroductionWithin the social sciences of studies of social exclusion, the search for a specific cause in order to be able to cure and correct malfunctions or disorders in society has a long history. The question of the effects of social and spatial context was never silenced and has in later years gained renewed interest. In research, as well as in policy, the cause of advanced social exclusion deeply connected with "race" has been more specifically localised to so-called segregated areas, which have been added to other well-established causes such as "social heritage", "ethnic capital", and "ethnic discrimination". There are several arguments for why the neighbourhood where a person grows up could be important for his or her integration in the labour market.The main question in this article is not whether there is a neighbourhood- The study uses data compiled from a number of Swedish public registers.A short review of the most relevant theoretical discussions on this matter are to be found in the next section. Hypotheses about the impacts of economic and ethnic composition of the neighbourhood are also presented. Some previous results of relevance are then discussed. In the following section, the national context is presented.This is followed by the empirical section of the article, which begins with a discussion of methodological considerations as well as a presentation of the dataset and the variables used. After that, there is a presentation of results. The article ends with a concluding discussion. Theoretical discussion and hypotheses about impacts of economic and ethnic composition of the neighbourhoodTheories of neighbourhood effects became the subject of renewed interest, inspired by, collective socialisation, impact of role models, collective efficacy, social control and relative deprivation. Institutional models, in which the institutions of the neighbourhood (e.g. schools) affect differences in young people"s development, are also important (Jencks and Mayer 1990). Wilson (1987Wilson ( , 1997 and others include changes in economic structure in the theory of why and how social characteristics of the neighbourhood influence its inhabitants and reinforce social inequality within cities. Skifter Andersen (2003) highlights self-perpetuating processes of deprivation and decay that take place in

The aim of this study is to determine whether immigrants and their children use a compensation strategy that involves achieving higher than expected education, given their parents' level of education and income. The study uses data for all individuals in Sweden who finished elementary school from 1990 to 1992. Parents' level of education and income is in general positively associated with higher odds of having university education. However, some immigrant groups show the reverse pattern of the impact of parents' income. The results support a compensation strategy developed in groups and families with low level of integration in the labor market.

Sweden possesses a highly deregulated school system in which students in the compulsory school system are free to choose almost any school they prefer. This study focuses on the long-term difference in educational level twelve years after finishing elementary school for students who made a school choice compared to those who did not. The study uses the Voronoi method of estimating school choice and is based on detailed register-based data for all students that finished elementary school in Sweden in the years 2000-2002. The results confirm previous findings that the most resourceful families more often make active choices. However, those who made an active school choice seem to have lower future educational achievement. The exception are those who have foreign-born parents, and those living in low-resource areas, who made an active school choice. They have a more positive educational achievement compared to those who stayed in the closest school.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to study the interplay between changes in policies, rules and regulations that have altered ethnic composition and incomes in the Swedish taxi industry since deregulation in the 1990s. Design/methodology/approach This is a mixed-methods study, combining the qualitative interviews, scrutiny of relevant policy documents and statistical data of the Swedish population between 1992 and 2012. The analysis uses a mixed embeddedness perspective to show how the changed regulations resulted in new openings/closings in opportunities for individuals operating in the sector and how the proportion of immigrants in the sector, increased continuously between 1992 and 2012. Findings Policy changes have altered ethnic composition and incomes in the Swedish taxi sector. Income differences between foreign born and Swedish born are decreasing. It occurs however in the context of a general trend of lower wages within the sector. New jobs are created, but these are low paid jobs with harsh working conditions. Originality/value What makes this paper original is the use of the mixed-method approach, combining the analyses of economic and ethnic changes in the sector with internal and external institutional changes in rules and regulations, which exemplify the essence of the mixed embeddedness concept. Additionally the quantitative part of the study uses register data - tax registers and population registers that includes entire population and is administered by Statistics Sweden in a database for REMESO.

This study investigates the importance of co-ethnic employment for second-generation immigrants using data on the total population of Sweden. The analyses show that employment by parents comprises a substantial part of co-ethnic employment among young people.However, youth of Swedish origin in the small business sector are employed by parents to the same extent as second-generation immigrants. Furthermore, youth of Swedish origin are much more often employed by Swedish-born employers. Therefore, we argue that mobilization of family resources and social networks is not specific to immigrants in 'ethnic economies' but is rather part of a general small-business class strategy.