OBJECTIVE: Research reveals mixed evidence for the effects of adenotonsillectomy (AT) on cognitive tests in children with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS). The primary aim of the study was to investigate effects of AT on cognitive test scores in the randomized Childhood Adenotonsillectomy Trial. METHODS:Children ages 5 to 9 years with OSAS without prolonged oxyhemoglobin desaturation were randomly assigned to watchful waiting with supportive care (n = 227) or early AT (eAT, n = 226). Neuropsychological tests were administered before the intervention and 7 months after the intervention. Mixed model analysis compared the groups on changes in test scores across follow-up, and regression analysis examined associations of these changes in the eAT group with changes in sleep measures. RESULTS:Mean test scores were within the average range for both groups. Scores improved significantly (P < .05) more across follow-up for the eAT group than for the watchful waiting group. These differences were found only on measures of nonverbal reasoning, fine motor skills, and selective attention and had small effects sizes (Cohen's d,. As additional evidence for AT-related effects on scores, gains in test scores for the eAT group were associated with improvements in sleep measures. CONCLUSIONS:Small and selective effects of AT were observed on cognitive tests in children with OSAS without prolonged desaturation. Relative to evidence from Childhood Adenotonsillectomy Trial for larger effects of surgery on sleep, behavior, and quality of life, AT may have limited benefits in reversing any cognitive effects of OSAS, or these benefits may require more extended follow-up to become manifest. 1 The prevalence of OSAS is ~1% to 6%, with higher rates in African Americans and children from families of lower socioeconomic status. 2 -4 Children with untreated OSAS are at risk for adverse outcomes ranging from daytime sleepiness and compromised cardiovascular health to behavior problems and impairments in cognition and academic performance. 5 -11 Problems in behavior and emotional regulation are common in children with OSAS compared with healthy controls, but evidence for adverse effects of OSAS on children's cognitive abilities is more mixed. 6 Some studies fail to find differences between children with OSAS and healthy controls, 12,13 and those that do report variable associations of measures of sleep disturbance with cognitive test scores. 7, 14 -18 Similarly, studies of outcomes of adenotonsillectomy (AT) in children with OSAS indicate variable benefits on such tests, with little evidence for associations of these effects with the severity of OSAS and sleep disruption. 8, 13, 14, 16, 19 -26 In the recently completed multicenter Childhood Adenotonsillectomy Trial (CHAT), children with OSAS without prolonged oxyhemoglobin desaturation assigned to early AT (eAT) improved more than those assigned to watchful waiting with supportive care (WWSC) on key secondary outcomes. 27 -29 Specifically, the eAT group improved more tha...

Congenital heart disease (CHD) affects millions of people worldwide, including over one million children in the United States. Approximately 25% of children born with CHD require intensive surgical intervention within the first year of life. Despite improved rates of survival into adulthood - rates that exceed 90% in the modern era - children and adolescents with CHD remain at risk for neurological injury and a range of neurobehavioral and psychosocial challenges that pose a threat to quality of life across the lifespan. Consequently, as experts in both clinical psychology and brain development, neuropsychologists are becoming increasingly involved in cardiac follow-up and monitoring to promote optimal developmental outcomes. The primary objective of this paper is to provide an evidence-based, clinically-oriented primer on CHD for pediatric neuropsychologists working with this growing population of survivors. Following an introduction to current standard-of-care guidelines for managing children and adolescents with CHD, we present an overview of brain development within the context of CHD, review neuropsychological outcomes, examine factors influencing variability in outcomes, and discuss implications and strategies for clinical assessment.