This chapter addresses the view that liberals have failed to marry the demands of identity- and class-based politics. It argues that in the 1970s, liberals built a powerful alliance between feminists and New Deal-style economic reforms that expanded the Democratic coalition and continues to exert influence upon it today. Although feminists failed in many of their symbolic or legal goals—particularly in the ratification of the Equal Rights Amendment or federal funding for abortion—they succeeded in passing legislation that vastly improved the lives of homemakers and women workers. The chapter maintains that, surely, incorporation of gender issues into the liberal agenda contributed to the rise of a conservative countermovement, but without equal rights, the universal promise of New Deal economics would remain empty.
<p><strong>Abstract.</strong> Ice crystal formation in atmospheric clouds has a strong effect on precipitation, cloud lifetime, cloud radiative properties and thus the global energy budget. Primary ice formation above 235&#8201;K is initiated by nucleation on seed aerosol particles called ice nucleating particles (INPs). Instruments that measure the ice nucleating potential of aerosol particles in the atmosphere need to be able to accurately quantify ambient INP concentrations. In the last decade several instruments have been developed to investigate the ice nucleating properties of aerosol particles and to measure ambient INP concentrations. Therefore, there is a need for inter-comparisons to ensure instrument differences are not interpreted as scientific findings. <br><br> In this study, we inter-compare the results from parallel measurements using four online ice nucleation chambers. Seven different aerosol types are tested including untreated and acid treated mineral dust (microcline &#8211; a K-feldspar &#8211; and kaolinite), as well as birch pollen washing waters. Experiments exploring heterogeneous ice nucleation above and below water saturation are performed to cover the whole range of thermodynamic conditions that can be investigated with the inter-compared chambers. The Leipzig Aerosol Cloud Interaction Simulator (LACIS) and the Portable Immersion Mode Cooling chAmber coupled to the Portable Ice Nucleation Chamber (PIMCA-PINC) performed measurements in the immersion freezing mode. Additionally two continuous flow diffusion chambers (CFDCs) PINC and the Spectrometer for Ice Nuclei (SPIN) are used to perform measurements below and just above water saturation nominally presenting deposition nucleation and condensation freezing. <br><br> The results of LACIS and PIMCA-PINC agree well over the whole range of measured frozen fractions (<i>FF</i>s) and temperature. In general PINC and SPIN compare well and the observed differences are explained by ice crystal growth and different residence times in the chamber. To study the mechanisms responsible for ice nucleation in the four instruments, <i>FF</i> (from LACIS and PIMCA-PINC) and activated fraction, <i>AF</i> (from PINC and SPIN) are compared. Measured <i>FF</i>s are up to a factor of three higher than <i>AF</i>s, but not consistent for all aerosol types and temperatures investigated. It showed that measurements from CFDCs cannot be assumed to produce the same results as those instruments exclusively measuring immersion freezing. Instead the need to apply a scaling factor to CFDCs operating above water saturation has to be considered to allow comparison with immersion freezing devices. Our results provide further awareness on factors such as the importance of dispersion methods and the quality of particle size-selection for inter-comparing online INP counters.</p>
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