To fully understand genome function, the linear genome map must be integrated with a spatial map of chromosomes in the nucleus. Distinct nuclear addresses for a few human chromosomes have been described. Previously we have demonstrated that the gene-rich human chromosome 19 is located in a more central position in the nucleus than the similarly sized, but gene-poor, chromosome 18. To determine whether these two chromosomes are a paradigm for the organization of chromatin in the human nucleus, we have now analysed the nuclear organization of every human chromosome in diploid lymphoblasts and primary fibroblasts. We find that the most gene-rich chromosomes concentrate at the centre of the nucleus, whereas the more gene-poor chromosomes are located towards the nuclear periphery. In contrast, we find no significant relationship between chromosome size and position within the nucleus. Proteins of the nuclear membrane or lamina are candidates for molecules that might anchor regions of the genome at the nuclear periphery and it has been suggested that disruption of this organization may play a role in some disease pathologies. We show that the intranuclear organization of chromosomes is not altered in cells that lack the integral nuclear membrane protein emerin, from an individual with X-linked Emery--Dreifuss muscular dystrophy. This suggests that emerin is not necessary for localizing chromosomes at the nuclear periphery and that the muscular dystrophy phenotype in such individuals is not due to grossly altered nuclear organization of chromatin.

The position of genes within the nucleus has been correlated with their transcriptional activity. The interchromosome domain model of nuclear organization suggests that genes preferentially locate at the surface of chromosome territories. Conversely, high resolution analysis of chromatin fibers suggests that chromosome territories do not present accessibility barriers to transcription machinery.To clarify the relationship between the organization of chromosome territories and gene expression, we have used fluorescence in situ hybridization to analyze the spatial organization of a contiguous ∼1 Mb stretch of the Wilms' tumor, aniridia, genitourinary anomalies, mental retardation syndrome region of the human genome and the syntenic region in the mouse. These regions contain constitutively expressed genes, genes with tissue-restricted patterns of expression, and substantial regions of intergenic DNA. We find that there is a spatial organization within territories that is conserved between mouse and humans: certain sequences do preferentially locate at the periphery of the chromosome territories in both species. However, we do not detect genes necessarily at the periphery of chromosome territories or at the surface of subchromosomal domains. Intraterritory organization is not different among cell types that express different combinations of the genes under study.Our data demonstrate that transcription of both ubiquitous and tissue-restricted genes is not confined to the periphery of chromosome territories, suggesting that the basal transcription machinery and transcription factors can readily gain access to the chromosome interior.

The organization of chromatin in the nucleus is nonrandom. Different genomic regions tend to reside in preferred nuclear locations, relative to radial position and nuclear compartments. Several lines of evidence support a role for chromatin localization in the regulation of gene expression. Therefore, a key problem is how the organization of chromatin is established and maintained in dividing cell populations. There is controversy about the extent to which chromatin organization is inherited from mother to daughter nucleus. We have used time-lapse microscopy to track specific human loci after exit from mitosis. In comparison to later stages of interphase, we detect increased chromatin mobility during the first 2 hr of G1, and during this period association of loci with nuclear compartments is both gained and lost. Although chromatin in daughter nuclei has a rough symmetry in its spatial distribution, we show, for the first time, that the association of loci with nuclear compartments displays significant asymmetry between daughter nuclei and therefore cannot be inherited from the mother nucleus. We conclude that the organization of chromatin in the nucleus is not passed down precisely from one cell to its descendents but is more plastic and becomes refined during early G1.

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It is well established that modification of lysines in histone molecules correlates with gene expression and chromatin structure. It is not known whether this operates entirely at a local level, e.g. through the recruitment of specific proteins, or whether histone modifications might impact on more long-range aspects of chromatin organization. There is a distinctive organization of chromatin within the nucleus and the chromatin at the nuclear periphery of mammalian cells appears to be hypoacetylated. Previously it had been suggested that inhibition of histone deacetylases by TSA causes a gross remodeling of nuclear structure, specifically the recruitment of centromeric heterochromatin to the nuclear periphery. Here, we have quantified the nuclear organization of histone modifications and the localization of centromeric domains in human cells before and after TSA treatment. TSA alters the nuclear distribution of histone acetylation, but not that of histone methylation. TSA elevates levels of histone acetylation at the nuclear periphery but we see no alteration in the position of centromeric domains in the nuclei of treated cells. We conclude that the distinctive nuclear localization of centromeric domains is independent of histone acetylation.

Background: Recent interest in the function of the nuclear lamina has been provoked by the discovery of lamin A/C mutations in the laminopathy diseases. However, it is not understood why mutations in lamin A give such a range of tissue-specific phenotypes. Part of the problem in rationalising genotype-phenotype correlations in the laminopathies is our lack of understanding of the function of normal and mutant lamin A. To investigate this we have used photobleaching in human cells to analyse the dynamics of wild-type and mutant lamin A protein at the nuclear periphery.

It has been suggested that chromatin at the nuclear periphery could act to shield DNA sequences in the nuclear interior from damage. To test this hypothesis, we have examined the nuclear distribution of sites of DNA repair induced by oxidation or UV-C. We do not detect more damage (repair) at the nuclear periphery than in the nuclear interior. In fact, contrary to the body guard hypothesis, there is an excess of damage detected in the nuclear interior. This is further supported by sequence comparison between genes on human chromosomes 18 or 19, and their counterparts in the chimpanzee. The synonymous substitution rate for genes on chromosome 19, which is located towards the centre of the human nucleus, was higher than that for genes on chromosome 18, which is located at the nuclear periphery. We conclude that chromatin at the periphery of the human nucleus is not able to protect more internally located sequences from damage and mutation. We suggest that features of the chromatin structure, or base composition, of sequences in the nuclear centre make them more susceptible to damage.

Chromosomes are the functional units of inheritance. Only by visualizing these complex and dynamic macromolecular entities can we begin to understand the implications of their structure and organization for the living cell.