The internal dye labeling of DNA by the Huisgen-Meldal-Sharpless "click" reaction is described. Fluorogenic 9-azidomethyl anthracene 2 and 3-azido-7-hydroxycoumarin 3 were employed in the postsynthetic functionalization of oligonucleotides incorporating octa-(1,7)-diynyl-8-aza-7-deaza-2'-deoxyadenosine 1. Nucleoside 1 was prepared by Sonogashira cross coupling from the corresponding 7-iodo compound, converted into the corresponding phosphoramidite, and oligonucleotides were synthesized. To evaluate the influence of ligands on the oligonucleotide duplex stability, benzyl azide 4 (nonpolar), and 2',3'-dideoxy azidothymidine 5 (AZT) (polar) were introduced along with the fluorogenic dyes 2 and 3. DNA duplexes with octa-1,7-diynyl side chains (i.e., containing 1) are more stable than oligonucleotides containing 8-aza-7-deaza-2'-deoxyadenosine, unveiling that this side chain has steric freedom. A single conjugation by an anthracene residue led to a 9 °C T(m) increase of duplex melting. Contrary to 7-deazaadenine dye conjugates, the 8-aza-7-deazaadenine conjugates show virtually no fluorescence quenching, thereby developing almost as strong fluorescence as side chain click derivatives (32 and 33) in the absence of 8-aza-7-deazaadenine moiety. Duplexes containing the 8-aza-7-deazaadenine dye conjugate show increased fluorescence over single-stranded DNA. Mismatches with dA, dG, and dC develop reduced fluorescence compared to the fully matched base pair. Molecular dynamics simulations revealed that the bulky dye molecules are accommodated well in duplex DNA.

Template-free cross-linking of single-stranded DNA bearing octadiynyl side chains at the 7-position of 8-aza-7-deazapurine moieties with bisfunctional azides is reported employing a Cu(I)-catalyzed azide-alkyne "bis-click" reaction. Bis-adducts were formed when the bis-azide:oligonucleotide ratio was 1:1; monofunctionalization occurred when the ratio was 15:1. Four-stranded DNA consisting of two cross-linked duplexes was obtained after hydridization. Cross-linked duplexes are as stable as individual duplexes when ligation was introduced at terminal positions; ligation at a central position led to a slight duplex destabilization.

Duplex DNA with terminal and internal sugar cross-links were synthesized by the CuAAC reaction from oligonucleotides containing 2'-O-propargyl-2-aminoadenosine as a clickable site and a bifunctional azide (4). Stepwise click chemistry was employed to introduce cross-links at internal and terminal positions. Copper turnings were used as catalyst, reducing the copper load of the reaction mixture and avoiding complexing agents. For oligonucleotide building block synthesis, a protecting group strategy was developed for 2'-O-propargyl-2-aminoadenosine owing to the rather different reactivities of the two amino groups. Phosphoramidites were synthesized bearing clickable 2'-O-propargyl residues (14 and 18) as well as a 2'-deoxyribofuranosyl residue (10). Hybridization experiments of non-cross-linked oligonucleotides with 2,6-diaminopurine as nucleobase showed no significant thermal stability changes over those containing adenine. Surprisingly, an isobutyryl group protecting the 2-amino function has no negative impact on the stability of DNA-DNA and DNA-RNA duplexes. Oligonucleotide duplexes with cross-linked 2'-O-propargylated 2-aminoadenosine (1) and 2'-O-propargylated adenosine (3) at terminal positions are significantly stabilized (ΔT(m) = +29 °C). The stability results from a molecularity change from duplex to hairpin melting and is influenced by the ligation position. Terminal ligation led to higher melting duplexes than corresponding hairpins, while duplexes with central ligation sites were less stable.

No abstract

DNA-protein cross-links (DPCs) are super-bulky DNA adducts induced by common chemotherapeutic agents, reactive oxygen species, and aldehydes, and also formed endogenously as part of epigenetic regulation. Despite their presence in most cells and tissues, the biological effects of DPCs are poorly understood due to the difficulty of constructing site-specific DNA-protein conjugates. In the present work, a new approach of conjugating proteins to DNA using oxime ligation was used to generate model DPCs structurally analogous to lesions formed in cells. In our approach, proteins and peptides containing an unnatural oxy-Lys amino acid were cross-linked to DNA strands functionalized with 5-formyl-dC or 7-(2-oxoethyl)-7-deaza-dG residues using oxime ligation. The conjugation reaction was site-specific with respect to both protein and DNA, provided excellent reaction yields, and formed stable DPCs amenable to biological evaluation.

The condensation reaction involving an aldehyde and diketone was efficiently promoted by the Ionic liquid, [Hbim]BF(4) (IL) as a reaction medium with methanol as co-solvent at ambient temperature under ultrasonic irradiation to afford the corresponding 1,8-dioxo-octahydro-xanthene (xanthene) derivatives in excellent yields. The advantages of this method include among others the use of a recyclable, non-volatile ionic liquid, which promotes this protocol under ambient temperature without the requirement of any added catalyst. The reaction times and yields are compared with p-TSA catalyzed synthesis of xanthenes under thermal conditions, which is also reported for the first time under our reaction conditions.

5-Methylcytosine (C) is an endogenous modification of DNA that plays a crucial role in DNA-protein interactions, chromatin structure, epigenetic regulation, and DNA repair. C is produced via enzymatic methylation of the C-5 position of cytosine by DNA-methyltransferases (DNMT) which use S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) as a cofactor. Hemimethylated CG dinucleotides generated as a result of DNA replication are specifically recognized and methylated by maintenance DNA methyltransferase 1 (DNMT1). The accuracy of DNMT1-mediated methylation is essential for preserving tissue-specific DNA methylation and thus gene expression patterns. In the present study, we synthesized DNA duplexes containing MeC analogues with modified C-5 side chains and examined their ability to guide cytosine methylation by the human DNMT1 protein. We found that the ability of 5-alkylcytosines to direct cytosine methylation decreased with increased alkyl chain length and rigidity (methyl> ethyl > propyl ∼ vinyl). Molecular modeling studies indicated that this loss of activity may be caused by the distorted geometry of the DNA-protein complex in the presence of unnatural alkylcytosines.

Humans are exposed to a wide range of electrophilic compounds present in our diet and environment or formed endogenously as part of normal physiological processes. These electrophiles can modify nucleophilic sites of proteins and DNA to form covalent adducts. Recently, powerful untargeted adductomic approaches have been developed for systematic screening of these adducts in human blood. Our earlier untargeted adductomics study detected 19 unknown adducts to N-terminal valine in hemoglobin (Hb) in human blood. We now describe a full characterization of one of these adducts, which corresponds to the addition of a 4-hydroxybenzyl (4-OHBn) group to N-terminal valine in Hb to form N-(4-hydroxybenzyl)valine (4-OHBn-Val). The adduct structure was determined by comparison of its accurate mass, HPLC retention time, and MS/MS fragmentation to that of authentic standards prepared by chemical synthesis. Average 4-OHBn-Val adduct concentrations in 12 human blood samples were estimated to 380 ± 160 pmol/g Hb. Two possible routes of 4-OHBnVal adduct formation are proposed using two different precursor electrophiles: 4-quinone methide (4-QM) and 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde (4-OHBA). We found that 4-QM reacts rapidly with valine to form the 4-OHBn-Val adduct; however, the quinone methide is unstable under physiological conditions due to hydrolysis. It was shown that 4-OHBA forms reversible Schiff base adducts with valine, which can be stabilized via reduction in blood generating the 4-OHBn-Val adduct. In addition, trace amounts of isomeric 2-hydroxybenzyl-valine (2-OHBn-Val) adducts were detected in 12 human blood samples (estimated mean adduct level, 5.0 ± 1.4 pmol/g Hb). Further studies are needed to quantify the contributions from identified possible precursor electrophiles to the observed hydroxybenzyl adducts in humans.