The corticospinal (CS) tract is involved in controlling discrete voluntary skilled movements in mammals. The CS tract arises exclusively from layer (L) 5 projection neurons of the cerebral cortex, and its formation requires L5 activity of Fezf2 (Fezl, Zfp312). How this L5-specific pattern of Fezf2 expression and CS axonal connectivity is established with such remarkable fidelity had remained elusive. Here we show that the transcription factor TBR1 directly binds the Fezf2 locus and represses its activity in L6 corticothalamic projection neurons to restrict the origin of the CS tract to L5. In Tbr1 null mutants, CS axons ectopically originate from L6 neurons in a Fezf2-dependent manner. Consistently, misexpression of Tbr1 in L5 CS neurons suppresses Fezf2 expression and effectively abolishes the CS tract. Taken together, our findings show that TBR1 is a direct transcriptional repressor of Fezf2 and a negative regulator of CS tract formation that restricts the laminar origin of CS axons specifically to L5.neocortex | pyramidal neuron | axon guidance | transcriptional repression S patial specificity of axonal connections is one of the most important prerequisites for normal development (1-3). In mammals, this is especially crucial for axons of the corticospinal (CS) system (4-7). Development of the CS tract is an intricate process that involves the molecular specification of CS neurons and axon pathfinding. All long-range subcortical axons projecting to the brainstem and spinal cord, including those that form the CS tract, originate exclusively from layer (L) 5 projection (pyramidal) neurons of the cerebral cortex (8-11). Projection neurons in other cortical layers give rise to axons that project within the cortex (L2-4) or to the thalamus (L6). How this highly conserved laminar pattern of projections is formed with such perfect accuracy remains elusive.Previous work revealed that the transcription factor FEZF2 (FEZL, ZFP312) is highly enriched in L5 CS neurons and is critical to the development of the CS tract (12-14). Inactivation of Fezf2 disrupts formation of the CS tract (12-14), whereas misexpression of Fezf2 in upper layer projection neurons induces ectopic subcortical projections (13). These findings indicate that Fezf2 transcription is tightly regulated during development, and that the integrity of normal Fezf2 expression is critical to proper development of the CS tract. Interestingly, Fezf2 is transiently expressed in L6 neurons during early embryonic development, where its transcription is directly repressed by SOX5, thereby establishing a high-in-L5, low-in-L6 postnatal pattern (15, 16). Paradoxically, in Sox5 null mutants, the number of axon projections reaching the brainstem and spinal cord is severely reduced despite increased cortical Fezf2 expression (15). This suggests that Sox5 is required for the formation of these connections independent of its regulation of Fezf2. Furthermore, SOX5 is normally expressed in L5 Fezf2-expressing CS neurons (15). Therefore, the down-regulation of Fezf2 in L6 neu...

SummaryThe co-emergence of a six-layered cerebral neocortex and its corticospinal output system is one of the evolutionary hallmarks of mammals. However, the genetic programs that underlie their development and evolution remain poorly understood. Here we identify a conserved non-exonic element (E4) that acts as a cortex-specific enhancer for the nearby Fezf2, which is required for the specification of corticospinal neuron identity and connectivity. We find that SOX4 and SOX11 functionally compete with the repressor SOX5 in the trans-activation of E4. Cortex-specific double deletion of Sox4 and Sox11 leads to the loss of Fezf2 expression and failed specification of corticospinal neurons and, independent of Fezf2, a reeler-like inversion of layers. We show evidence supporting the emergence of functional SOX binding sites in E4 during tetrapod evolution and their subsequent stabilization in mammals and possibly amniotes. These findings reveal that SOX transcription factors converge onto a cis-acting element of Fezf2 and form critical components of a regulatory network controlling the identity and connectivity of corticospinal neurons.

SUMMARY Fragile X syndrome (FXS), the leading monogenic cause of intellectual disability and autism, results from loss of function of the RNA-binding protein FMRP. Here we show that FMRP regulates the translation of neuronal nitric oxide synthase 1 (NOS1) in the developing human neocortex. Whereas NOS1 mRNA is ubiquitously expressed, NOS1 protein is transiently co-expressed with FMRP during early synaptogenesis in layer- and region-specific subpopulations of pyramidal neurons. These include mid-fetal layer 5 subcortically projecting neurons arranged into alternating columns in the prospective Broca’s area and orofacial motor cortex. Human NOS1 translation is activated by FMRP via interactions with coding region binding motifs absent from mouse Nos1 mRNA, which is expressed in mouse pyramidal neurons, but not efficiently translated. Correspondingly, neocortical NOS1 protein levels are severely reduced in developing human FXS cases but not FMRP-deficient mice. Thus, alterations in FMRP post-transcriptional regulation of NOS1 in developing neocortical circuits may contribute to cognitive dysfunction in FXS.

Neovessel formation is a complex process governed by the orchestrated action of multiple factors that regulate EC specification and dynamics within a growing vascular tree. These factors have been widely exploited to develop therapies for angiogenesis-related diseases such as diabetic retinopathy and tumor growth and metastasis. WNT signaling has been implicated in the regulation and development of the vascular system, but the detailed mechanism of this process remains unclear. Here, we report that Dickkopf1 (DKK1) and Dickkopf2 (DKK2), originally known as WNT antagonists, play opposite functional roles in regulating angiogenesis. DKK2 induced during EC morphogenesis promoted angiogenesis in cultured human endothelial cells and in in vivo assays using mice. Its structural homolog, DKK1, suppressed angiogenesis and was repressed upon induction of morphogenesis. Importantly, local injection of DKK2 protein significantly improved tissue repair, with enhanced neovascularization in animal models of both hind limb ischemia and myocardial infarction. We further showed that DKK2 stimulated filopodial dynamics and angiogenic sprouting of ECs via a signaling cascade involving LRP6-mediated APC/Asef2/Cdc42 activation. Thus, our findings demonstrate the distinct functions of DKK1 and DKK2 in controlling angiogenesis and suggest that DKK2 may be a viable therapeutic target in the treatment of ischemic vascular diseases.

Our findings provide direct in vitro and in vivo evidence for spreading of β-amyloid through neuronal connections, and suggest possible therapeutic approaches to blocking this spread.

The neurogenic potential of the subgranular zone (SGZ) of the hippocampal dentate gyrus is likely to be regulated by molecular cues arising from its complex heterogeneous cellular environment. Through transcriptome analysis using laser microdissection coupled with DNA microarrays, in combination with analysis of genome-wide in situ hybridization data, we identified 363 genes selectively enriched in adult mouse SGZ. These genes reflect expression in the different constituent cell types, including progenitor and dividing cells, immature granule cells, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes and GABAergic interneurons. Similar transcriptional profiling in the rhesus monkey dentate gyrus across postnatal development identified a highly overlapping set of SGZ-enriched genes, which can be divided based on temporal profiles to reflect maturation of glia versus granule neurons. Furthermore, we identified a neurogenesis-related gene network with decreasing postnatal expression that is highly correlated with the declining number of proliferating cells in dentate gyrus over postnatal development. Many of the genes in this network showed similar postnatal downregulation in mouse, suggesting a conservation of molecular mechanisms underlying developmental and adult neurogenesis in rodents and primates. Conditional deletion of Sox4 and Sox11, encoding two neurogenesis-related transcription factors central in this network, produces a mouse with no hippocampus, confirming the crucial role for these genes in regulating hippocampal neurogenesis.

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