Numerous proteins undergo modification by palmitic acid (S-acylation) for their biological functions including signal transduction, vesicular transport and maintenance of cellular architecture. Although palmitoylation is an essential modification, these proteins must also undergo depalmitoylation for their degradation by lysosomal proteases. Palmitoyl-protein thioesterase-1 (PPT1), a lysosomal enzyme, cleaves thioester linkages in S-acylated proteins and removes palmitate residues facilitating the degradation of these proteins. Thus, inactivating mutations in the PPT1 gene cause infantile neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis (INCL), a devastating neurodegenerative storage disorder of childhood. Although rapidly progressing brain atrophy is the most dramatic pathological manifestation of INCL, the molecular mechanism(s) remains unclear. Using PPT1-knockout (PPT1-KO) mice that mimic human INCL, we report here that the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in the brain cells of these mice is structurally abnormal. Further, we demonstrate that the level of growth-associated protein-43 (GAP-43), a palmitoylated neuronal protein, is elevated in the brains of PPT1-KO mice. Moreover, forced expression of GAP-43 in PPT1-deficient cells results in the abnormal accumulation of this protein in the ER. Consistent with these results, we found evidence for the activation of unfolded protein response (UPR) marked by elevated levels of phosphorylated translation initiation factor, eIF2alpha, increased expression of chaperone proteins such as glucose-regulated protein-78 and activation of caspase-12, a cysteine proteinase in the ER, mediating caspase-3 activation and apoptosis. Our results, for the first time, link PPT1 deficiency with the activation of UPR, apoptosis and neurodegeneration in INCL and identify potential targets for therapeutic intervention in this uniformly fatal disease.

In the majority of neurodegenerative storage disorders, neuronal death in the brain is followed by infiltration of phagocytic cells (e.g. activated microglia, astroglia and macrophages) for the efficient removal of cell corpses. However, it is increasingly evident that these phagocytes may also cause death of adjoining viable neurons contributing to rapid progression of neurodegeneration. Infantile neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis (INCL) is a devastating, neurodegenerative, lysosomal storage disorder caused by inactivating mutations in the palmitoyl-protein thioesterase-1 (PPT1) gene. PPT1 catalyzes the cleavage of thioester linkages in S-acylated (palmitoylated) proteins and its deficiency leads to abnormal accumulation of thioesterified polypeptides (ceroid) in lysosomes causing INCL pathogenesis. PPT1-knockout (PPT1-KO) mice mimic the clinical and pathological features of human INCL including rapid neuronal death by apoptosis and phagocyte infiltration. We previously reported that in PPT1-KO mice, the neurons undergo endoplasmic reticulum stress activating unfolded protein response, which mediates caspase-12 activation and apoptosis. However, the molecular mechanism(s) by which the phagocytic cells are recruited in the PPT1-KO mouse brain remains poorly understood. We report here that increased production of lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC), catalyzed by the activation of cytosolic phospholipase A(2) (cPLA(2)) in the PPT1-KO mouse brain, is a 'lipid signal' for phagocyte recruitment. We also report that an age-dependent increase in LPC levels in the PPT1-KO mouse brain positively correlates with elevated expression of the genes characteristically associated with phagocytes. We propose that increased cPLA(2)-catalyzed LPC production in the brain is at least one of the mechanisms that mediate phagocyte infiltration contributing to INCL neuropathology.

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) damage to brain lipids, carbohydrates, proteins, and DNA may contribute to neurodegeneration. We previously reported that ER-and oxidative stress cause neuronal apoptosis in infantile neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis (INCL), a lethal neurodegenerative storage disease, caused by palmitoyl-protein thioesterase-1(PPT1)-deficiency. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) are essential components of cell membrane phospholipids in the brain and excessive ROS may cause oxidative damage PUFA leading to neuronal death. Using cultured neurons and neuroprogenitor cells from mice lacking Ppt1, which mimic INCL, we demonstrate that Ppt1-deficient neurons and neuroprogenitor cells contain high levels of ROS, which may cause perxidation of PUFA and render them incapable of providing protection against oxidative stress. We tested whether treatment of these cells with omega-3 or omega-6 PUFA protects the neurons and neuroprogenitor cells from oxidative stress and suppress apoptosis. We report here that both omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids protect the Ppt1-deficient cells from ER-as well as oxidative stress and suppress apoptosis. Our results suggest that PUFA supplementation may have neuroprotective effects in INCL. KeywordsINCL; palmitoyl-protein thioesterase-1; Batten disease; Neurodegenaration; ER-stress; Oxidative stress; Apoptosis; PUFA The nervous system is highly enriched with an enormous variety of complex lipids, among which polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) predominate [reviewed in 1]. Despite their abundance in the mammalian brain, de novo synthesis of PUFAs such as arachidonic acid (AA) and docosahexanoic acid (DHA) does not occur. Thus, the diet is the sole source of these fatty acids or their precursors [1]. Previous studies have established the critical roles of PUFAs in the development of the nervous system. Moreover, nearly 50% of the fatty acids * To whom all correspondence should addressed at: mukherja@exchange.nih.gov.Publisher's Disclaimer: This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final citable form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain. . Thus, even though the PUFA levels are the same in normal and PPT1-deficient brains, the highly oxidative environment present in the brain of INCL patients and in that of the Ppt1-KO mice these lipids may not be adequate to protect the neurons from oxidative stress. Therefore, we hypothesized that omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids may have neuroprotective effects in Ppt1-deficient cells. NIH Public AccessIn the present study, we analyzed cultured PPT1-deficient neurons and neuronal progenitor cells derived from the fetal brain tissues of Ppt1-KO mice. We also explored the effe...

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These results suggest Pep19 from Pg HSP60 has a distinct ability to induce native-LDL oxidation as a plausible mechanism by which this peptide may drive epitope spreading to the neoantigen, i.e., oxidized LDL, in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis.

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