BackgroundCompound K [20-O-β-(D-glucopyranosyl)-20(S)-protopanaxadiol], a metabolite of the protopanaxadiol-type saponins of Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer, has been reported to possess anti-tumor properties to inhibit angiogenesis and to induce tumor apoptosis. In the present study, we investigated the effect of Compound K on apoptosis and explored the underlying mechanisms involved in HL-60 human leukemia cells.MethodsWe examined the effect of Compound K on the viabilities of various cancer cell lines using MTT assays. DAPI assay, Annexin V and PI double staining, Western blot assay and immunoprecipitation were used to determine the effect of Compound K on the induction of apoptosis.ResultsCompound K was found to inhibit the viability of HL-60 cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner with an IC50 of 14 μM. Moreover, this cell death had typical features of apoptosis, that is, DNA fragmentation, DNA ladder formation, and the externalization of Annexin V targeted phosphatidylserine residues in HL-60 cells. In addition, compound-K induced a series of intracellular events associated with both the mitochondrial- and death receptor-dependent apoptotic pathways, namely, (1) the activation of caspases-3, -8, and -9; (2) the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential; (3) the release of cytochrome c and Smac/DIABLO to the cytosol; (4) the translocation of Bid and Bax to mitochondria; and (5) the downregulations of Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL. Furthermore, a caspase-8 inhibitor completely abolished caspase-3 activation, Bid cleavage, and subsequent DNA fragmentation by Compound K. Interestingly, the activation of caspase-3 and -8 and DNA fragmentation were significantly prevented in the presence of cycloheximide, suggesting that Compound K-induced apoptosis is dependent on de novo protein synthesis.ConclusionsThe results indicate that caspase-8 plays a key role in Compound K-stimulated apoptosis via the activation of caspase-3 directly or indirectly through Bid cleavage, cytochrome c release, and caspase-9 activation.
1,2,3,4-diepoxybutane (DEB) is reported to be the most potent mutagenic metabolite of 1,3-butadiene, an important industrial chemical and environmental pollutant. DEB is capable of inducing the formation of monoalkylated DNA adducts, and DNA-DNA and DNA-protein crosslinks. We previously reported that DEB forms a conjugate with glutathione (GSH) and that the conjugate is considerably more mutagenic than several other butadiene-derived epoxides, including DEB, in the base pair tester strain Salmonella typhimurium TA1535 (Cho et. al., Chem. Res. Toxicol. 23, 1544–1546 (2010)). In the present study, we determined steady-state kinetic parameters of the conjugation of the three DEB stereoisomers— R,R-, S,S-, and meso- — (all formed by butadiene oxidation) with GSH by six GSH transferases. Only small differences (< 3-fold) were found in the catalytic efficiency of conjugate formation (kcat/Km) with all three DEB stereoisomers and the six GSH transferases. The three stereochemical DEB-GSH conjugates had similar mutagenicity. Six DNA adducts (N3-adenyl, N6-adenyl, N7-guanyl, N1-guanyl, N4-cytidyl, and N3-thymidyl) were identified in the reactions of DEB-GSH conjugate with nucleosides and calf thymus DNA using LC-MS and UV and NMR spectroscopy. N6-Adenyl and N7-guanyl GSH adducts were identified and quantitated in vivo in the livers of mice and rats treated with DEB i.p.. These results indicate that such DNA adducts are formed from the DEB-GSH conjugate, are mutagenic irregardless of sterochemistry, and therefore expected to contribute to the carcinogenicity of DEB.
The triterpene saponin ginsenoside Rh2 has been shown to have antiproliferative effects on various cancer cells. However, the effect of Rh2 on the cell cycle and its underlying molecular mechanism in human leukemia cells are not fully understood. In this study, we found that Rh2 inhibited the proliferation of human leukemia cells concentration- and time-dependently with an IC(50) of ~38 µM. DNA flow cytometric analysis indicated that Rh2 blocked cell cycle progression at the G(1) phase in HL-60 and U937 cells, and this was found to be accompanied by the downregulations of cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) 4, CDK6, cyclin D1, cyclin D2, cyclin D3 and cyclin E at the protein level. However, CDK inhibitors (CDKIs), such as p21(CIP1/WAF1) and p27(KIP1), were gradually upregulated after Rh2 treatment at the protein and messenger RNA (mRNA) levels. In addition, Rh2 markedly enhanced the bindings of p21(CIP1/WAF1) and p27(KIP1) to CDK2, CDK4 and CDK6, and these bindings reduced CDK2, CDK4 and CDK6 activities. Furthermore, Rh2 induced the differentiation of HL-60 cells as demonstrated by biochemical assays and the expression levels of cell surface antigens. In addition, treatment of HL-60 cells with Rh2 significantly increased transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) production, and cotreatment with TGF-β neutralizing antibody prevented the Rh2-induced downregulations of CDK4 and CDK6, upregulations of p21(CIP1/WAF1) and p27(KIP1) levels and the induction of differentiation. These results demonstrate that the Rh2-mediated G(1) arrest and the differentiation are closely linked to the regulation of TGF-β production in human leukemia cells.
The chemical structures of DNA-protein crosslinks (DPCs) are necessary for understanding mechanisms of mutagenesis, but structural analysis of DPCs is limited because the modifications are bulky. Using a combination of LC-tandem MS and chemical modification approaches, we have characterized the structures of various DNA-ethylene-O6-alkylguanine-DNA alkyltransferase (AGT) crosslinks.
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