While pregnancy-related proteins (PRP) are known to contribute to immunotolerance during pregnancy, their significance to development of invasive placenta is unclear. We compared PRP expression in humans and the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus), a new-world monkey. Invasive placenta was observed at the maternal-foetal interface of marmoset placenta from green fluorescent protein (GFP)-expressing foetus and wild type mother. The pregnancy zone protein (PZP) and alpha-2 macroglobulin-like 1 (A2ML1) proteins exhibited the most prominent increase in expression during the second trimester in humans and marmoset, respectively. In humans, PZP accumulated at the maternalfoetal interface and A2ML1 accumulated in the amnion. Similarly, A2ML1 mRNA was detected in marmoset placenta. These proteins belong to the A2M family of protease inhibitors, and both PZP and A2ML1 share around 90% homology between human and marmoset and have highly conserved structures. However, the protease-reacting bait regions of the proteins had lower homology (56.8-60.7% in proteins) relative to the rest of the sequence. Notably, the cleavage site of a proinflammatory proline-endopeptidase was preserved in human PZP and marmoset A2ML1. These proteins contain multiple sites that are cleaved by proteases involving proline-endopeptidase. Systemic regulation of these A2M family proteins may be important in animals with invasive placenta.The placental structure and molecular mechanism of pregnancy have been greatly changed during the evolution of eutherian mammals, even within the Euarchontoglires. For example, the rodent placenta develops a labyrinth-like structure with shallow interstitial invasion of trophoblasts, while the human placenta, which is evolutionarily newer than that of the macaque, is composed of trophoblasts that form chorions and deeply invade into the decidua to remodel maternal blood vessels 1,2 . In primates and rodents, trophoblast cells invading into the decidua construct a maternal-foetal interface, where semi-allograft foetal tissues are checked by the mother's immunity. Primates have longer gestation periods and more highly invasive maternal-foetal interfaces than those of rodents 3 . As the placenta becomes more invasive, the amount of oxygen and nutrient transportation increases owing to the expansion of blood vessels and reduction of vascular resistance. In humans, it is reported that placental invasion is related to brain growth, as large amounts of oxygen and nutrients may develop larger brains 4,5 . However, this benefit forces the trophoblasts to encounter the mother's immunity for a long period.Furthermore, it has also been suggested that foetal trophoblast cells, tissue pieces, and foetal non-methylated CpG DNA are circulating systemically throughout the body of species with highly invasive trophoblasts that are retained for a long period 6 . As these systemically circulating foetal tissues and DNAs may cause allogeneic reactions or innate inflammatory reactions outside of the placenta, immunoregulation outside of t...
Prostaglandin D2 (PGD2) was investigated for its effect on prolactin (PRL) secretion from rat anterior pituitary in vitro and in vivo. Significant suppression in the release of PRL was observed when the anterior pituitaries were incubated for 4 hours in vitro in the presence of more than 100 pg of PGD2'/ml incubation medium. In the second experiment, animals received intravenous injections of PGD2 after pretreatment of ovariectomized mature rats with estrogen and progesterone. Thirty minutes after injection of 250 pg or 500 pg of PGD2, serum PRL levels were significantly lower than levels before the PGD2 injection. The injection of the vehicle control did not affect serum PRL levels.These results suggest that at high dosages PGDz suppresses PRL secretion by acting directly on the rat anterior pituitary gland.
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