It has been estimated that 650,000 protein-protein interactions exist in the human interactome [1], a subset of all possible macromolecular partnerships that dictate life. Thus there is a continued need for the development of sensitive and user-friendly methods for cataloguing biomacromolecules in complex environments and for detecting their interactions, modifications, and cellular location. Such methods also allow for establishing differences in the interactome between a normal and diseased cellular state and for quantifying the outcome of therapeutic intervention. A promising approach for deconvoluting the role of macromolecular partnerships is split-protein reassembly, also called protein fragment complementation. This approach relies on the appropriate fragmentation of protein reporters, such as the green fluorescent protein or firefly luciferase, which when attached to possible interacting partners can reassemble and regain function, thereby confirming the partnership. Split-protein methods have been effectively utilized for detecting protein-protein interactions in cell-free systems, E. coli, yeast, mammalian cells, plants, and live animals. Herein, we present recent advances in engineering split-protein systems that allow for the rapid detection of ternary protein complexes, small molecule inhibitors, as well as a variety of macromolecules including nucleic acids, poly(ADP) ribose, and iron sulfur clusters. We also present advances that combine split-protein systems with chemical inducers of dimerization strategies that allow for regulating the activity of orthogonal split-proteases as well as aid in identifying enzyme inhibitors. Finally, we discuss autoinhibition strategies leading to turn-on sensors as well as future directions in split-protein methodology including possible therapeutic approaches.

Proteases are widely studied as they are integral players in cell cycle control and apoptosis. We report a new approach for the design of a family of genetically encoded turn-on protease biosensors. In our design, an auto-inhibited coiled-coil switch is turned on upon proteolytic cleavage, which results in the complementation of split-protein reporters. Utilizing this new auto-inhibition design paradigm, we present the rational construction and optimization of three generations of protease biosensors, with the final design providing a 1000 fold increase in bioluminescent signal upon addition of the TEV protease. We demonstrate the generality of the approach utilizing two different split-protein reporters, firefly luciferase and beta-lactamase, while also testing our design in the context of a therapeutically relevant protease, caspase-3. Finally, we present a dual-protease sensor geometry that allows for the use of these turn-on sensors as potential AND logic gates. Thus these studies potentially provide a new method for the design and implementation of genetically encoded turn-on protease sensors while also providing a general auto-inhibited coiled-coil strategy for controlling the activity of fragmented proteins.

The dynamic interplay between ubiquitin (Ub) chain construction and destruction is critical for the regulation of many cellular pathways. To understand these processes, it would be ideal to simultaneously detect different Ub chains as they are created and destroyed in the cell. This objective cannot be achieved with existing detection strategies. Here, we report on the use of 19F Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to detect and characterize conformationally distinct Ub oligomers. By exploiting the environmental sensitivity of the 19F nucleus and the conformational diversity found among Ub chains of different linkage types, we can simultaneously resolve the 19F NMR signals for mono-Ub and three distinct di-Ub oligomers (K6, K48, and K63) in heterogeneous mixtures. The utility of this approach is demonstrated by the ability to interrogate the selectivity of deubiquitinases with multiple Ub substrates in real time. We also demonstrate that 19F NMR can be used to discern Ub linkages that are formed by select E3 ligases found in pathogenic bacteria. Collectively, our results assert the potential of 19F NMR for monitoring Ub signaling in cells to reveal fundamental insights about the associated cellular pathways.

Caspases play a central role in apoptosis, differentiation, and proliferation, and represent important therapeutic targets for treating cancer and inflammatory disorders. Toward the goal of developing new tools to probe caspase substrate cleavage specificity as well as to systematically interrogate caspase activation pathways, we have constructed and investigated a comprehensive panel of caspase biosensors with a split-luciferase enabled bioluminescent read out. We first interrogated the panel of caspase biosensors for substrate cleavage specificity of caspase 1-10 in widely utilized in vitro translation systems, namely, rabbit reticulocyte lysate (RRL) and wheat germ extract (WGE). Commercial RRL was found to be unsuitable for investigating caspase specificity, owing to surprising levels of endogenous caspase activity, while specificity profiles of the caspase sensors in WGE agree very well with traditional peptide probes. The full panel of biosensors was utilized for studying caspase activation and inhibition in several mammalian cytosolic extracts, clearly demonstrating that they can be utilized to directly monitor activation or inhibition of procaspase 3/7. Furthermore, the complete panel of caspase biosensors also provided new insights into caspase activation pathways wherein we surprisingly discovered the activation of procaspase 3/7 by caspase 4/5.