SummaryNF-kB regulates the expression of a large number of target genes involved in the immune and inflammatory response, apoptosis, cell proliferation, differentiation and survival. In this study, we identified SIRT2 as a deacetylase of the transcription factor p65. SIRT2 is a member of the family of sirtuins, which are NAD + -dependent deacetylases involved in several cellular processes. SIRT2 interacts with p65 in the cytoplasm and deacetylates p65 in vitro and in vivo at Lys310. Moreover, p65 is hyperacetylated at Lys310 in Sirt2 -/-cells after TNFa stimulation, which results in the increase in expression of a subset of p65 acetylation-dependent target genes. Our work provides evidence that p65 is deacetylated by SIRT2 in the cytoplasm to regulate the expression of specific NF-kBdependent genes.

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Human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) were used as a model system of human pancreas development to study characteristics of the polyhormonal cells that arise during fetal pancreas development. HESCs were differentiated into fetal-like pancreatic cells in vitro using a 33-day, 7-stage protocol. Cultures were ~90-95% PDX1-positive by day (d) 11 and 70-75% NKX6.1-positive by d17. Polyhormonal cells were scattered at d17, but developed into islet-like clusters that expressed key transcription factors by d33. Human C-peptide and glucagon secretion were first detected at d17 and increased thereafter in parallel with INS and GCG transcript levels. HESC-derived cells were responsive to KCl and arginine, but not glucose in perifusion studies. Compared to adult human islets, hESC-derived cells expressed ~10-fold higher levels of glucose transporter 1 (GLUT1) mRNA, but similar levels of glucokinase (GCK). In situ hybridization confirmed the presence of GLUT1 transcript within endocrine cells. However, GLUT1 protein was excluded from this population and was instead observed predominantly in non-endocrine cells, whereas GCK was co-expressed in insulin-positive cells. In rubidium efflux assays, hESC-derived cells displayed mild potassium channel activity, but no responsiveness to glucose, metabolic inhibitors or glibenclamide. Western blotting experiments revealed that the higher molecular weight SUR1 band was absent in hESC-derived cells, suggesting a lack of functional KATP channels at the cell surface. In addition, KATP channel subunit transcript levels were not at a 1:1 ratio, as would be expected (SUR1 levels were ~5-fold lower than KIR6.2). Various ratios of SUR1:KIR6.2 plasmids were transfected into COSM6 cells and rubidium efflux was found to be particularly sensitive to a reduction in SUR1. These data suggest that an impaired ratio of SUR1:KIR6.2 may contribute to the observed KATP channel defects in hESC-derived islet endocrine cells, and along with lack of GLUT1, may explain the absence of glucose-stimulated insulin secretion.

Type 1 diabetes is a progressive autoimmune disease that is largely silent in its initial stages. Yet, sensitive methods for detection of β-cell death and prediction and prevention of diabetes are lacking. Micro-RNAs (miRNAs) have been found at high concentrations in body fluids. Here in this study we sought to determine whether an islet enriched miRNA, miR-375, is a suitable blood marker to detect β-cell death and predict diabetes in mice. We measured miR-375 levels by quantitative RT-PCR in plasma samples of streptozotocin (STZ)-treated C57BL/6 mice and nonobese diabetic (NOD) mice. We also measured miR-375 levels in media samples of cytokine- or STZ-treated islets in the presence or absence of cell-death inhibitors. High-dose STZ administration dramatically increased circulating miR-375 levels, prior to the onset of hyperglycemia. Similarly, in the NOD mouse model of autoimmune diabetes, circulating miR-375 levels were significantly increased 2 weeks before diabetes onset. Moreover, cytokine- and STZ-induced cell death in isolated mouse islets produced a striking increase in extracellular miR-375 levels, which was reduced by cell death inhibitors. These data suggest that circulating miR-375 can be used as a marker of β-cell death and potential predictor of diabetes.

Caspase 1 is part of the inflammasome, which is assembled upon pathogen recognition, while caspases 3 and/or 7 are mediators of apoptotic and nonapoptotic functions. PARP1 cleavage is a hallmark of apoptosis yet not essential, suggesting it has another physiological role. Here we show that after LPS stimulation, caspase 7 is activated by caspase 1, translocates to the nucleus, and cleaves PARP1 at the promoters of a subset of NF-κB target genes negatively regulated by PARP1. Mutating the PARP1 cleavage site D214 renders PARP1 uncleavable and inhibits PARP1 release from chromatin and chromatin decondensation, thereby restraining the expression of cleavage-dependent NF-κB target genes. These findings propose an apoptosis-independent regulatory role for caspase 7-mediated PARP1 cleavage in proinflammatory gene expression and provide insight into inflammasome signaling.

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Poly(ADP-ribose)polymerase-1 (PARP1) is a chromatin-associated enzyme that was described to affect chromatin compaction. Previous reports suggested a dynamic modulation of the chromatin landscape during adipocyte differentiation. We thus hypothesized that PARP1 plays an important transcriptional role in adipogenesis and metabolism and therefore used adipocyte development and function as a model to elucidate the molecular action of PARP1 in obesity-related diseases. Our results show that PARP1-dependent ADP-ribose polymer (PAR) formation increases during adipocyte development and, at late time points of adipogenesis, is involved in the sustained expression of PPARγ2 and of PPARγ2 target genes. During adipogenesis, PARP1 was recruited to PPARγ2 target genes such as CD36 or aP2 in a PAR-dependent manner. Our results also reveal a PAR-dependent decrease in repressory histone marks (e.g. H3K9me3) and an increase in stimulatory marks (e.g. H3K4me3) at the PPARγ2 promoter, suggesting that PARP1 may exert its regulatory function during adipogenesis by altering histone marks. Interestingly, activation of PARP1 enzymatic activity was prevented with a topoisomerase II inhibitor. These data hint at topoisomerase II-dependent, transient, site-specific double-strand DNA breaks as the cause for poly(ADP)-ribose formation, adipogenic gene expression, and adipocyte function. Together, our study identifies PARP1 as a critical regulator of PPARγ2-dependent gene expression with implications in adipocyte function and obesity-related disease models.

Hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (HIF-1) is the key transcription factor regulating hypoxia-dependent gene expression. Lack of oxygen stabilizes HIF-1, which in turn modulates the gene expression pattern to adapt cells to the hypoxic environment. Activation of HIF-1 is also detected in most solid tumors and supports tumor growth through the expression of target genes that are involved in processes like cell proliferation, energy metabolism, and oxygen delivery. Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP1) is a chromatin-associated protein, which was shown to regulate transcription. Here we report that chronic myelogenous leukemia cells expressing small interfering RNA against PARP1, which were injected into wild-type mice expressing PARP1, showed tumor growth with increased levels of necrosis, limited vascularization, and reduced expression of GLUT-1. Of note, PARP1-deficient cells showed a reduced HIF-1 transcriptional activation that was dependent on PARP1 enzymatic activity. PARP1 neither influenced binding of HIF-1 to its hypoxic response element nor changed HIF-1A protein levels in hypoxic cells. However, PARP1 formed a complex with HIF-1A through direct protein interaction and coactivated HIF-1A -dependent gene expression. These findings provide convincing evidence that wild-type mice expressing PARP1 cannot compensate for the loss of PARP1 in tumor cells and strengthen the importance of the role of PARP1 as a transcriptional coactivator of HIF-1 -dependent gene expression during tumor progression. (Mol Cancer Res 2008;6(2):282 -90)