Chemokines, which are basic proteins that exert their effects via G protein-coupled receptors and a subset of the cytokine family, are mediators deeply involved in leukocyte migration during an inflammatory reaction. Chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 20 (CCL20), also known as macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-3α, liver activation regulated chemokine (LARC), and Exodus-1, is a small protein that is physiologically expressed in the liver, colon, and skin, is involved in tissue inflammation and homeostasis, and has a specific receptor C-C chemokine receptor 6 (CCR6). The CCL20-CCR6 axis has long been known to be involved in inflammatory and infectious diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis and human immunodeficiency virus infections. Recently, however, reports have shown that the CCL20-CCR6 axis is associated with several cancers, including hepatocellular carcinoma, colorectal cancer, breast cancer, pancreatic cancer, cervical cancer, and kidney cancer. The CCL20-CCR6 axis promotes cancer progression directly by enhancing migration and proliferation of cancer cells and indirectly by remodeling the tumor microenvironment through immune cell control. The present article reviewed the role of the CCL20-CCR6 axis in cancer progression and its potential as a therapeutic target.

Previous studies have found that tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) promote cancer progression. We previously reported that TAMs promote prostate cancer metastasis via activation of the CCL2–CCR2 axis. The CCR4 (receptor of CCL17 and CCL22) expression level in breast cancer was reported to be associated with lung metastasis. The aim of this study was to elucidate the role of CCR2 and CCR4 in prostate cancer progression. CCR2 and CCR4 were expressed in human prostate cancer cell lines and prostate cancer tissues. In vitro co-culture of prostate cancer cells and macrophages resulted in increased CCL2 and CCR2 levels in prostate cancer cells. The addition of CCL2 induced CCL22 and CCR4 production in prostate cancer cells. The migration and invasion of prostate cancer cells via enhanced phosphorylation of Akt were promoted by CCL17 and CCL22. CCR4 may be a potential candidate for molecular-targeted therapy.

Preoperative factors, including the results of UDS, could not predict continence 1 year after RARP. The NS procedure contributed to continence status. NS favorably affected MUCP and FUL; however, it did not affect bladder function after RARP. Neurourol. Urodynam. 35:1034-1039, 2016. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Macrophages are present in most human tissues and have very diverse functions. Activated macrophages are usually divided into two phenotypes, M1 macrophages and M2 macrophages, which are altered by various factors such as microorganisms, tissue microenvironment, and cytokine signals. Macrophage polarity is very important for infections, inflammatory diseases, and malignancies; its management can be key in the prevention and treatment of diseases. In this review, we assess the current state of knowledge on macrophage polarity and report on its prospects as a therapeutic target.

Understanding the mechanism of lymph node metastasis, a poor prognostic sign for prostate cancer, and the further dissemination of the disease is important to develop novel treatment strategies. Recent studies have reported that C‐C chemokine receptor 7 (CCR7), whose ligand is CCL21, is abundantly expressed in lymph node metastasis and promotes cancer progression. Tumor necrosis factor‐α (TNF‐α) is chronically produced at low levels within the tumor microenvironment. The aim of this study was to determine whether TNF‐α promotes prostate cancer dissemination from metastatic lymph nodes through activation of the CCL21/CCR7 axis. First, human prostate cancer cells were determined to express both TNF‐α and CCR7. Second, low concentrations of TNF‐α were confirmed to induce CCR7 in prostate cancer cells through phosphorylation of ERK. Finally, CCL21 was found to promote the migration of prostate cancer cells through phosphorylation of the protein kinase p38. Our results suggest that TNF‐α leads to the induction of CCR7 expression and that the CCL21/CCR7 axis might increase the metastatic potential of prostate cancer cells in lymph node metastasis.