The impact of hop variety and hop aroma on perceived beer bitterness intensity and character was investigated using analytical and sensory methods. Beers made from malt extract were hopped with 3 distinctive hop varieties (Hersbrucker, East Kent Goldings, Zeus) to achieve equi-bitter levels. A trained sensory panel determined the bitterness character profile of each singly-hopped beer using a novel lexicon. Results showed different bitterness character profiles for each beer, with hop aroma also found to change the hop variety-derived bitterness character profiles of the beer. Rank-rating evaluations further showed the significant effect of hop aroma on selected key bitterness character attributes, by increasing perceived harsh and lingering bitterness, astringency, and bitterness intensity via cross-modal flavour interactions. This study advances understanding of the complexity of beer bitterness perception by demonstrating that hop variety selection and hop aroma both impact significantly on the perceived intensity and character of this key sensory attribute.
Parents of 40 three to four year-olds attending nursery classes in schools in one English local education authority and their children's teachers were inter-viewed about the teaching of reading and writing. Parents were interviewed at home, and teachers were interviewed in school, about the children's literacy experiences in both settings. A very high level of parental interest in literacy was found, centred on books and print-related activities. Teachers, however, placed more emphasis on developing what they saw as pre-reading and pre-writing skills. Teachers felt that parental involvement in preschool literacy could lead to children being put under too much pressure and being taught by the wrong methods. Parents saw their involvement as productive, would have welcomed help from teachers, and were unsure about the place of literacy in the nursery curriculum.
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