Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) cause autosomal-dominant familial Parkinson's disease. We generated lines of Caenorhabditis elegans expressing neuronally directed human LRRK2. Expressing human LRRK2 increased nematode survival in response to rotenone or paraquat, which are agents that cause mitochondrial dysfunction. Protection by G2019S, R1441C, or kinase-dead LRRK2 was less than protection by wild-type LRRK2. Knockdown of lrk-1, the endogenous ortholog of LRRK2 in C. elegans, reduced survival associated with mitochondrial dysfunction. C. elegans expressing LRRK2 showed rapid loss of dopaminergic markers (DAT::GFP fluorescence and dopamine levels) beginning in early adulthood. Loss of dopaminergic markers was greater for the G2019S LRRK2 line than for the wild-type line. Rotenone treatment induced a larger loss of dopamine markers in C. elegans expressing G2019S LRRK2 than in C. elegans expressing wild-type LRRK2; however, loss of dopaminergic markers in the G2019S LRRK2 nematode lines was not statistically different from that in the control line. These data suggest that LRRK2 plays an important role in modulating the response to mitochondrial inhibition and raises the possibility that mutations in LRRK2 selectively enhance the vulnerability of dopaminergic neurons to a stressor associated with Parkinson's disease.

How genetic and environmental factors interact in Parkinson disease is poorly understood. We have now compared the patterns of vulnerability and rescue of Caenorhabditis elegans with genetic modifications of three different genetic factors implicated in Parkinson disease (PD). We observed that expressing ␣-synuclein, deleting parkin (K08E3.7), or knocking down DJ-1 (B0432.2) or parkin produces similar patterns of pharmacological vulnerability and rescue. C. elegans lines with these genetic changes were more vulnerable than nontransgenic nematodes to mitochondrial complex I inhibitors, including rotenone, fenperoximate, pyridaben, or stigmatellin. In contrast, the genetic manipulations did not increase sensitivity to paraquat, sodium azide, divalent metal ions (Fe(II) or Cu(II)), or etoposide compared with the nontransgenic nematodes. Each of the PD-related lines was also partially rescued by the antioxidant probucol, the mitochondrial complex II activator, D-␤-hydroxybutyrate, or the anti-apoptotic bile acid tauroursodeoxycholic acid. Complete protection in all lines was achieved by combining D-␤-hydroxybutyrate with tauroursodeoxycholic acid but not with probucol. These results show that diverse PD-related genetic modifications disrupt the mitochondrial function in C. elegans, and they raise the possibility that mitochondrial disruption is a pathway shared in common by many types of familial PD.The etiology of Parkinson disease has both genetic and environmental components (1). Epidemiological studies show that PD 3 is more common in rural areas, and increased rates of PD are associated with the use of agricultural toxins, such as pesticides and herbicides (2). Attention has focused on inhibitors of the mitochondrial electron transport chain because some of the agricultural toxins implicated in PD are complex I inhibitors (2). In addition, ingestion of complex I inhibitors causes syndromes related to PD. The complex I inhibitor 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) selectively kills dopaminergic neurons in many types of animals (1). Rotenone, another complex I inhibitor, also causes a PD-related syndrome in rats and causes multiple changes in the mitochondria of cultured neurons relevant to PD (3-6). These factors implicate disruption of mitochondrial function, and particularly complex I inhibition, in the etiology of PD.Many of the genes associated with familial cases of PD have been identified, but no clear consensus exists over whether the different disease-related proteins converge onto a common pathway. Mutation of ␣-synuclein (at A53T, A30P, or K46E) or duplication of ␣-synuclein is associated with familial parkinsonisms (7-10). Loss of the putative ubiquitin ligase, parkin, causes autosomal recessive juvenile parkinsonism (11). Mutations in the genes coding for UCH-L1, DJ-1, and PINK1 are also all associated with autosomal recessive PD, and mutations in LRRK2 are associated with autosomal dominant PD (12-15). ␣-Synuclein is a small ubiquitous protein that binds lipids and might regulate ves...

Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) has been linked to several clinical disorders including Parkinson’s disease (PD), Crohn’s disease, and leprosy. Furthermore in rodents, LRRK2 deficiency or inhibition leads to lysosomal pathology in kidney and lung. Here we provide evidence that LRRK2 functions together with a second PD-associated gene, RAB7L1, within an evolutionarily conserved genetic module in diverse cellular contexts. In C. elegans neurons, orthologues of LRRK2 and RAB7L1 act coordinately in an ordered genetic pathway to regulate axonal elongation. Further genetic studies implicated the AP-3 complex, which is a known regulator of axonal morphology as well as of intracellular protein trafficking to the lysosome compartment, as a physiological downstream effector of LRRK2 and RAB7L1. Additional cell-based studies implicated LRRK2 in the AP-3 complex-related intracellular trafficking of lysosomal membrane proteins. In mice, deficiency of either RAB7L1 or LRRK2 leads to prominent age-associated lysosomal defects in kidney proximal tubule cells, in the absence of frank CNS pathology. We hypothesize that defects in this evolutionarily conserved genetic pathway underlie the diverse pathologies associated with LRRK2 in humans and in animal models.

The cox gene is the first gene of the early operon of bacteriophage P2. The early promoter Pe and the repressor promoter Pc are located close to each other and in such a way that their transcripts have opposite polarity and show an overlap of about 30 nucleotides. The expression of the early operon and of the C gene was studied in vivo by using fusions to a promoterless cat (chloramphenicol acetyl transferase) gene. The results show that the Cox protein negatively autoregulates the early operon and inhibits the formation of the repressor C. By measuring the efficiency of plating of a series of P2 virulent deletion mutants on bacteria carrying a cloned cox gene, the site of action of the Cox protein was mapped within the Pe‐Pc region. The stimulatory effect of the C protein on expression of the Pc promoter was found to be due to inhibition of transcription from Pc; this was demonstrated by mutating Pe which showed that loss of transcription from Pe stimulated transcription from Pc. Hence, this is a case of regulation of gene expression by convergent transcription. By cloning the region C‐Pe‐Pc‐cox such that the cat and kan genes are expressed from Pc and Pe, respectively, it was shown that only one of the resistances (Cm and Km) was expressed. This mimics the choice between lysogeny and lytic growth of the phage. The ‘lysogenic’ state was very stable whereas the ‘lytic’ state flipped to the ‘lysogenic’ at a somewhat higher frequency. The presence of a cloned cox gene drastically stimulated the formation of free phage from a P2‐lysogen and dramatically reduced the frequency of lysogenization after P2 infection. We conclude that the pleiotropic effects of the cox (control of excision) gene, namely effects on lysogenization, formation of free phage and site‐specific P2 recombination, can be explained by the effect of the Cox protein on the activity of the promoters Pc and Pe.

Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are prevalent causes of late-onset Parkinson's disease. Here, we show that LRRK2 binds to MAPK kinases (MKK) 3, 6, and 7, and that LRRK2 is able to phosphorylate MKK3, 6 and 7. Over-expression of LRRK2 and MKK6 increased the steady state levels of each protein beyond that observed with overexpression of either protein alone. Co-expression increased levels of MKK6 in the membrane more than in the cytoplasm. The increased expression of LRRK2 and MKK6 requires MKK6 activity. The disease-linked LRRK2 mutations, G2019S, R1441C and I2020T, enhance binding of LRRK2 to MKK6. This interaction was further supported by in vivo studies in C. elegans. RNAi knockdown in C. elegans of the endogenous orthologs for MKK6 or p38, sek-1 and pmk-1, abolishes LRRK2-mediated protection against mitochondrial stress. These results were confirmed by deletion of sek-1 in C.elegans. These data demonstrate that MKKs and LRRK2 function in similar biological pathways, and support a role for LRRK2 in modulating the cellular stress response.