Findings over the past decade have identified aberrant activation of the ETS transcription factor family throughout all stages of tumorigenesis. Specifically in solid tumours, gene rearrangement and amplification, feed-forward growth factor signalling loops, formation of gain-of-function co-regulatory complexes and novel cis-acting mutations in ETS target gene promoters can result in increased ETS activity. In turn, pro-oncogenic ETS signalling enhances tumorigenesis through a broad mechanistic toolbox that includes lineage specification and self-renewal, DNA damage and genome instability, epigenetics and metabolism. This Review discusses these different mechanisms of ETS activation and subsequent oncogenic implications, as well as the clinical utility of ETS factors.
Tumor fibroblasts are active partners in tumor progression, but the genes and pathways that mediate this collaboration are ill-defined. Previous work demonstrates that Ets2 function in stromal cells significantly contributes to breast tumor progression. Conditional mouse models were used to study the function of Ets2 in both mammary stromal fibroblasts and epithelial cells. Conditional inactivation of Ets2 in stromal fibroblasts in PyMT and ErbB2 driven tumors significantly reduced tumor growth, however deletion of Ets2 in epithelial cells in the PyMT model had no significant effect. Analysis of gene expression in fibroblasts revealed a tumor- and Ets2-dependent gene signature that was enriched in genes important for ECM remodeling, cell migration, and angiogenesis in both PyMT and ErbB2 driven-tumors. Consistent with these results, PyMT and ErbB2 tumors lacking Ets2 in fibroblasts had fewer functional blood vessels, and Ets2 in fibroblasts elicited changes in gene expression in tumor endothelial cells consistent with this phenotype. An in vivo angiogenesis assay revealed the ability of Ets2 in fibroblasts to promote blood vessel formation in the absence of tumor cells. Importantly, the Ets2-dependent gene expression signatures from both mouse models were able to distinguish human breast tumor stroma from normal stroma, and correlated with patient outcomes in two whole tumor breast cancer data sets. The data reveals a key function for Ets2 in tumor fibroblasts in signaling to endothelial cells to promote tumor angiogenesis. The results highlight the collaborative networks that orchestrate communication between stromal cells and tumor cells, and suggest that targeting tumor fibroblasts may be an effective strategy for developing novel anti-angiogenic therapies.
The importance of the tumor–associated stroma in cancer progression is clear. However, it remains uncertain whether early events in the stroma are capable of initiating breast tumorigenesis. Here, we show that in the mammary glands of non-tumor bearing mice, stromal-specific phosphatase and tensin homolog (Pten) deletion invokes radiation-induced genomic instability in neighboring epithelium. In these animals, a single dose of whole-body radiation causes focal mammary lobuloalveolar hyperplasia through paracrine epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) activation, and EGFR inhibition abrogates these cellular changes. By analyzing human tissue, we discover that stromal PTEN is lost in a subset of normal breast samples obtained from reduction mammoplasty, and is predictive of recurrence in breast cancer patients. Combined, these data indicate that diagnostic or therapeutic chest radiation may predispose patients with decreased stromal PTEN expression to secondary breast cancer, and that prophylactic EGFR inhibition may reduce this risk.
Fibroblasts within the mammary tumor microenvironment are active participants in carcinogenesis mediating both tumor initiation and progression. Our group has previously demonstrated that genetic loss of PTEN in mammary fibroblasts induces an oncogenic secretome that remodels the extracellular milieu accelerating ErbB2-driven mammary tumor progression. While these prior studies highlighted a tumor suppressive role for stromal PTEN, how the adjacent normal epithelium transforms in response to PTEN loss was not previously addressed. To identify these early events, we have evaluated both phenotypic and genetic changes within the pre-neoplastic mammary epithelium of mice with and without stromal PTEN expression. We report that fibroblast-specific PTEN deletion greatly restricts mammary ductal elongation and induces aberrant alveolar side-branching. These mice concomitantly exhibit an expansion of the mammary epithelial stem cell (MaSC) enriched basal/myoepithelial population and an increase in in vitro stem cell activity. Further analysis revealed that NOTCH signaling, specifically through NOTCH3, is diminished in these cells. Mechanistically, JAGGED-1, a transmembrane ligand for the NOTCH receptor, is downregulated in the PTEN-null fibroblasts leading to a loss in the paracrine activation of NOTCH signaling from the surrounding stroma. Reintroduction of JAGGED-1 expression within the PTEN-null fibroblasts was sufficient to abrogate the observed increase in colony forming activity implying a direct role for stromal JAGGED-1 in regulation of mammary stem cell properties. Importantly, breast cancer patients whose tumors express both low stromal JAG1 and low stromal PTEN exhibit a shorter time to recurrence than those whose tumors express low levels of either alone suggesting similar stromal signaling in advanced disease. Combined, these results unveil a novel stromal PTEN-to-JAGGED-1 axis in maintaining the mammary epithelial stem cell niche, and subsequently inhibiting breast cancer initiation and disease progression.
One of the major confounding factors in the treatment of breast cancer is the cellular heterogeneity of the breast. An important cellular component of the normal breast as well as tumor stroma is the fibroblast. Fibroblasts are cells of mesenchymal origin that express platelet derived growth factor receptor alpha (PDGFR-α), a pharmaceutically targetable receptor tyrosine kinase. While activation of PDGFR-α was shown to be a poor prognostic factor in glioblastoma and gastro-intestinal stromal tumors, the role of stromal PDGFR-α signaling in mammary development and carcinomas is yet to be explored. To elucidate the role of stromal PDGFR-α signaling in this context, we utilized mice harboring the activating Pdgfra-D842V mutation knocked into the endogenous Pdgfra locus under a Lox-STOP-Lox cassette. To obtain selective activation of PDGFR-α in the fibroblastic stroma, these mice were crossed with fibroblast specific Fsp-cre mice. Whole mount carmine alum staining revealed that the D842V mutants have severely impaired mammary ductal development. Further analyses at the histological level revealed that the D842V glands have increased extra-cellular matrix (ECM) deposition (Masson's trichrome) likely due to the observable increase in fibroblasts (vimentin positivity). Immuno-fluorescent dual staining for keratin 8 and Ki67 demonstrated that stromal PDGFR-α activation increases the proliferation of neighboring mammary ductal cells, potentially making them more tumorigenic. To gain insight into the molecular mechanisms underlying this stromal-epithelial cross-talk, primary mammary epithelial cells and fibroblasts were isolated for downstream assays. Western blot analyses showed that mutant mammary fibroblasts have increased levels of activated PLC-γ, AKT and JNK which are known oncogenic pathways in the stroma. Gene expression arrays followed by global pathway analyses showed that pro-tumorigenic processes such as proliferation and metastasis are enriched in the epithelium from the mutant mice, while pro-tumor pathways such as KRAS and JNK were found to be enriched in the mutant fibroblasts. Interestingly, Pdgfra-D842V mutant mice have significantly increased stiffness as measured by atomic force microscopy of naïve tissue. This result implies that the observed increase in fibroblast number and resulting ECM deposition is sufficient to alter the entire mammary tissue. Since breast density correlates with higher breast cancer risk and tumor invasiveness, this phenotype reveals a novel function for stromal PDGFR-α signaling in breast cancer susceptibility. Studies are underway to evaluate whether these mice are predisposed to mammary tumor formation. Given our present data, we conclude that activation of stromal PDGFR-α signaling not only abrogates mammary development, but also makes the mammary ductal epithelium more tumorigenic. Citation Format: Anisha Mathur, Gina M. Sizemore, Subhasree Balakrishnan, Vasudha C. Shukla, Maria Cuitino, Anthony J. Trimboli, Samir Ghadiali, Gustavo W. Leone, Michael C. Ostrowski. Stromal PDGFR-α activation stalls mammary ductal development and increases tumorigenic potential of mammary epithelia. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 106th Annual Meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research; 2015 Apr 18-22; Philadelphia, PA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2015;75(15 Suppl):Abstract nr 985. doi:10.1158/1538-7445.AM2015-985
scite is a Brooklyn-based organization that helps researchers better discover and understand research articles through Smart Citations–citations that display the context of the citation and describe whether the article provides supporting or contrasting evidence. scite is used by students and researchers from around the world and is funded in part by the National Science Foundation and the National Institute on Drug Abuse of the National Institutes of Health.
hi@scite.ai
10624 S. Eastern Ave., Ste. A-614
Henderson, NV 89052, USA
Copyright © 2024 scite LLC. All rights reserved.
Made with 💙 for researchers
Part of the Research Solutions Family.