Sea levels have been determined for most of the Paleozoic Era (542 to 251 million years ago), but an integrated history of sea levels has remained unrealized. We reconstructed a history of sea-level fluctuations for the entire Paleozoic by using stratigraphic sections from pericratonic and cratonic basins. Evaluation of the timing and amplitude of individual sea-level events reveals that the magnitude of change is the most problematic to estimate accurately. The long-term sea level shows a gradual rise through the Cambrian, reaching a zenith in the Late Ordovician, then a short-lived but prominent withdrawal in response to Hirnantian glaciation. Subsequent but decreasingly substantial eustatic highs occurred in the mid-Silurian, near the Middle/Late Devonian boundary, and in the latest Carboniferous. Eustatic lows are recorded in the early Devonian, near the Mississippian/Pennsylvanian boundary, and in the Late Permian. One hundred and seventy-two eustatic events are documented for the Paleozoic, varying in magnitude from a few tens of meters to approximately 125 meters.
Hydrocarbons can occur within and around igneous rocks, sometimes in commercially significant quantities. Igneous or closely associated rocks can be hydrocarbon sources in the conventional sense (biotic) as well as possibly through abiotic processes. Maturation is extremely variable, depending on the extrusive/intrusive nature of the activity and the relative importance of a deep heat source. Igneous volatiles and hydrothermal fluids may also be important in mobilizing and moving hydrocarbons. Igneous rocks can have good reservoir qualities, and they can produce their own trapping structures as well as being part of a larger feature. Many exploration methods are individually unreliable in and around igneous rocks, and an integrated approach is most effective. Seismic, magnetotelluric, gravity and magnetic surveys may all provide helpful information. Geological mapping, geochemistry and remote imagery may also be helpful. Evaluation of potentially commercial hydrocarbon accumulations requires interpretation of well logs, which may have unusual characteristics. Drill stem and production tests may also be needed for evaluation before exploration ends and development begins.
Data on the occurrence of hydrocarbons in and around igneous rocks show them to be global in extent, occurring in over 100 countries worldwide. While this list is not exhaustive, it is possibly the first of its kind to be published, and will serve as a useful source of reference for those wishing to embark on further study.
scite is a Brooklyn-based organization that helps researchers better discover and understand research articles through Smart Citations–citations that display the context of the citation and describe whether the article provides supporting or contrasting evidence. scite is used by students and researchers from around the world and is funded in part by the National Science Foundation and the National Institute on Drug Abuse of the National Institutes of Health.