The sexual exploitation and abuse (SEA) of civilians by international peacekeepers is a form of post-conflict violence that is pernicious and understudied, but far from inevitable. However, there are very few cross-mission analyses of the phenomenon. This article considers whether the socialization experiences of troops in two environments, the contributing state military and the peacekeeping mission itself, help to explain the observed variation in SEA. Drawing on a dataset of SEA allegations between 2007 and 2014, as well as the first publicly available data from the United Nations that identify the nationalities of alleged perpetrators, this article analyzes the layered nature of socialization through the lens of SEA. Specifically, this article presents evidence that SEA is positively associated with disciplinary breakdowns at the peacekeeping mission’s lower levels of command, and argues that a peacekeeping mission may carry its own norms and socializing processes that either constrain or facilitate the emergence and endurance of SEA.
Since the adoption of UNSCR 1820 in 2008, United Nations peacekeeping operations have come under increased pressure to prevent conflict-related sexual violence (CRSV) conducted by local security actors. Still, the outcomes from peacekeeping preventive actions are reported to often fall far short of public expectations. 1 To address that problem, there is an ongoing debate on how to enhance peacekeeping operations' effectiveness. For example, the UN Security Council held a Debate on CRSV on 23 April 2019 with the Nobel Peace Prize laureates Ms. Nadia Murad and Dr. Denis Mukwege speaking before the Council. The resolution adopted, UNSCR 2467, stated that the Security Council '[r]ecognizes the need to integrate the prevention, response and elimination of sexual violence in conflict and post-conflict situations […] including in relevant authorizations and renewals of the mandates of peace missions through the inclusion of operational provisions'. In preparations for the anniversary of UNSCR 1325 in 2020, the first resolution to recognize that violence targeting women is relevant for international peace and security, further calls on the UN to improve its track record of preventing CRSV is a critical theme. At the practitioner level, military forums are discussing how to clarify military responsibilities and improve their practical contributions to prevention. 2 As noted by Lotze in this Forum: 'Consolidating the gains
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