We fi rst recognised the value of heritage when we studied monarchies as corporate brands. 1,2 This case study led us to seek and study other brand situations where heritage seems to play an important role and adds value.By brand heritage , we mean a dimension of a brand ' s identity found in its track BACKGROUNDThe purpose of this conceptual paper based on case studies is to explore, investigate and defi ne heritage as a part of corporate brand identity. Our goals are to uncover heritage and to understand better how to activate, nurture and protect heritage in the process of corporate branding.

This article provides a framework intended to assist firms in understanding their corporation's identities more clearly and managing them more effectively. In the wake of corporate acquisitions, mergers, and spin-offs, considerable senior management attention has been devoted to corporate identity and its communication to key stakeholder groups.In many instances, a company's efforts to find its identity and articulate it are based on a belief in a single monolithic corporate identity. Our research leads to a different view-namely that organizations have multiple identities. In fact we have delineated five kinds of identity, which can be examined in a framework termed the AC 2 ID Test TM (ACCID), 1 namely the actual, communicated, conceived, ideal, and desired identities. These reflect respectively: the current, distinct attributes of the organization; what the organization communicates about itself; the perceptions of the corporation by stakeholders; the optimum positioning for the organization; and corporate vision from the perspective of the CEO or management board.A key premise underlying the effective use of the AC 2 ID Test framework is that in any given identity situation management should understand each and all of the five identities. Further, management must be alert to critical misalignments among the identities, misalignments that potentially can seriously weaken a company. Nine specific case examples, drawn from a variety of industries based in different parts of the world, illustrate situations where such misalignments appeared to exist, and the management actions involved.

Purpose -This paper aims to provide insights into the what, why, and how of recognising corporate brand crisis through a synthesis of organisational experiences with threats to brand reputation, and to offer guidelines for analytic approaches and suggested organisational actions. Design/methodology/approach -The approach takes the form of a clinical set of examinations and interpretation of a substantial number of recognised corporate brand crisis situations. The analysis and suggested approaches in the paper have been tested with corporate executives and communications counselors in classrooms and private applied situations. Findings -The main points are: reputational trouble can come in many forms, from many sources and many publics; the most serious situations are those that affect the distinctive attribute/characteristic -"the essence of the brand" -most closely associated with the brand's meaning and success. A number of specific examples illustrate this point. However, past and present corporate behaviour is the most significant element in a crisis situation. Authenticity plays a key role in building, sustaining, and defending reputation. From analysis of many corporate brand crisis experiences the paper finds that forthrightness in communications and substantive credible responses in the form of behaviour are most likely to restore trust and rescue a brand in crisis. The most important actions, however, are those taken to build a "reputational reservoir" as a strong foundation for corporate reputation. Research limitations/implications -Research on reputational troubles is rarely based on documented information from inside the affected/afflicted organization. Except when companies have successfully overcome such situations (such as Johnson and Johnson in the Tylenol tragedy), internal information is typically unavailable. Examination of media coverage and informal discussions with former executives can be mitigating substitutes. Practical implications -The principal implications relate to: how an organization can assess the seriousness of an actual or prospective situation affecting its brand reputation; suggested approaches to the value and use of corporate communications and the salience of authenticity; and suggested actions in the face of brand crisis. Originality/value -The paper provides an analytic approach to assessing the seriousness of threats to organisational brand reputation. It also examines actual reputational troubles in the context of corporate-level marketing and corporate communications; and draws on extensive case studies and seminars in this area with experienced executives.

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A ligning the multiple identities of the corporation is one of the most critical tasks to be undertaken by senior executives. Where meaningful identity misalignments occur the result can be deleterious. When placed in context, the following quote from the "Values" section of a company report of 1998 provides a powerful example of the damage caused by identity misalignments-in this case between corporate communications (communicated identity) and an organization's distinctive traits (actual corporate identity). It read as follows:"We treat others as we would like to be treated ourselves. We do not tolerate abusive or disrespectful treatment. Ruthlessness, callousness and arrogance don't belong here." 1The company was Enron. The AC 3 ID TestHow can senior managers diagnose and resolve the identity misalignments that regularly characterize their organization? The framework outlined here seeks to address the above. The authors acknowledge the support and observations of faculty colleagues and students at Strathclyde University, Bradford School of Management, Brunel University, Queensland University of Technology, The Catholic University of Australia, and Harvard Business School with whom we have shared our insights from the early 1990s vis-à-vis the various identity changes effected at British Airways (see also Appendix). The authors appreciate the helpful comments of three anonymous reviewers.