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T unnamed, and very few species have well-documented distributions or population sizes. These data gaps can be resolved by targeting parasites in biodiversity monitoring and sampling programs; protecting, modernizing, and using biological collections as a resource for studying longterm change; and harnessing modern revolutions in bioinformatics and genomics to track shifting host-parasite interactions and catalog new species.…parasite conservation is ready to make the jump from premise to practice. Case studies of successful parasite conservation exist, especially where parasites were conserved along with their hosts during host translocation and ex situ host conservation efforts. Following these examples, standard conservation protocols can minimize (real or perceived) tradeoffs between parasite and host vulnerability, and make protecting parasites alongside their hosts the default option. More broadly, frameworks are in place to start protecting parasites in their own right, including vulnerability assessment, classification on Red Lists, and protection through endangered species legislation.…growing interest in parasite conservation is an asset worth fostering. As academics, conservation practitioners, and stakeholders increasingly work towards advancing parasite conservation, their efforts can be supported through resources and training. At the same time, sharing the benefits and beauty of parasites with the general public through education, outreach, and citizen science could build stronger local and global communities that support parasite conservation efforts.

Although theoretical models consider social networks as pathways for disease transmission, strong empirical support, particularly for indirectly transmitted parasites, is lacking for many wildlife populations. We found multiple genetic strains of the enteric bacterium Salmonella enterica within a population of Australian sleepy lizards (Tiliqua rugosa), and we found that pairs of lizards that shared bacterial genotypes were more strongly connected in the social network than were pairs of lizards that did not. In contrast, there was no significant association between spatial proximity of lizard pairs and shared bacterial genotypes. These results provide strong correlative evidence that these bacteria are transmitted from host to host around the social network, rather than that adjacent lizards are picking up the same bacterial genotype from some common source.

Graphical abstract

Wildlife populations are under increasing pressure from a variety of threatening processes, ranging from climate change to habitat loss, that can incite a physiological stress response. The stress response influences immune function, with potential consequences for patterns of infection and transmission of disease among and within wildlife, domesticated animals and humans. This is concerning because stress may exacerbate the impact of disease on species vulnerable to extinction, with consequences for biodiversity conservation globally. Furthermore, stress may shape the role of wildlife in the spread of emerging infectious diseases (EID) such as Hendra virus (HeV) and Ebola virus. However, we still have a limited understanding of the influence of physiological stress on infectious disease in wildlife.We highlight key reasons why an improved understanding of the relationship between stress and wildlife disease could benefit conservation, and animal and public health, and discuss approaches for future investigation. In particular, we recommend that increased attention be given to the influence of anthropogenic stressors including climate change, habitat loss and management interventions on disease dynamics in wildlife populations.Additional keyword: physiology.

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Understanding space use remains a major challenge for animal ecology, with implications for species interactions, disease spread, and conservation. Behavioural type (BT) may shape the space use of individuals within animal populations. Bolder or more aggressive individuals tend to be more exploratory and disperse further. Yet, to date we have limited knowledge on how space use other than dispersal depends on BT. To address this question we studied BT-dependent space-use patterns of sleepy lizards (Tiliqua rugosa) in southern Australia. We combined high-resolution global positioning system (GPS) tracking of 72 free-ranging lizards with repeated behavioural assays, and with a survey of the spatial distributions of their food and refuge resources. Bayesian generalized linear mixed models (GLMM) showed that lizards responded to the spatial distribution of resources at the neighbourhood scale and to the intensity of space use by other conspecifics (showing apparent conspecific avoidance). BT (especially aggressiveness) affected space use by lizards and their response to ecological and social factors, in a seasonally dependent manner. Many of these effects and interactions were stronger later in the season when food became scarce and environmental conditions got tougher. For example, refuge and food availability became more important later in the season and unaggressive lizards were more responsive to these predictors. These findings highlight a commonly overlooked source of heterogeneity in animal space use and improve our mechanistic understanding of processes leading to behaviourally driven disease dynamics and social structure.

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