Noroviruses are understudied because these important enteric pathogens have not been cultured to date. We found that the norovirus murine norovirus 1 (MNV-1) infects macrophage-like cells in vivo and replicates in cultured primary dendritic cells and macrophages. MNV-1 growth was inhibited by the interferon-αβ receptor and STAT-1, and was associated with extensive rearrangements of intracellular membranes. An amino acid substitution in the capsid protein of serially passaged MNV-1 was associated with virulence attenuation in vivo. This is the first report of replication of a norovirus in cell culture. The capacity of MNV-1 to replicate in a STAT-1-regulated fashion and the unexpected tropism of a norovirus for cells of the hematopoietic lineage provide important insights into norovirus biology.

Norwalk-like caliciviruses (Noroviruses) cause over 90% of nonbacterial epidemic gastroenteritis worldwide, but the pathogenesis of norovirus infection is poorly understood because these viruses do not grow in cultured cells and there is no small animal model. Here, we report a previously unknown murine norovirus. Analysis of Murine Norovirus 1 infection revealed that signal transducer and activator of transcription 1-dependent innate immunity, but not T and B cell-dependent adaptive immunity, is essential for norovirus resistance. The identification of host molecules essential for murine norovirus resistance may provide targets for prevention or control of an important human disease.

The cell tropism of human noroviruses and the development of an in vitro infection model remain elusive. Although susceptibility to individual human norovirus strains correlates with an individual’s histo-blood group antigen (HBGA) profile, the biological basis of this restriction is unknown. We demonstrate that human and mouse noroviruses infected B cells in vitro and likely in vivo. Human norovirus infection of B cells required the presence of HBGA-expressing enteric bacteria. Furthermore, mouse norovirus replication was reduced in vivo when the intestinal microbiota was depleted by means of oral antibiotic administration. Thus, we have identified B cells as a cellular target of noroviruses and enteric bacteria as a stimulatory factor for norovirus infection, leading to the development of an in vitro infection model for human noroviruses.

Human noroviruses are the major cause of nonbacterial epidemic gastroenteritis worldwide. However, little is known regarding their pathogenesis or the immune responses that control them because until recently there has been no small animal model or cell culture system of norovirus infection. We recently reported the discovery of the first murine norovirus, murine norovirus 1 (MNV-1), and its cultivation in macrophages and dendritic cells in vitro. We further defined interferon receptors and the STAT-1 molecule as critical in both resistance to MNV-1-induced disease in vivo and control of virus growth in vitro. To date, neither histopathological changes upon infection nor viral replication in wild-type mice has been shown. Here we extend our studies to demonstrate that MNV-1 replicates and rapidly disseminates to various tissues in immunocompetent mice and that infection is restricted by STAT1-dependent interferon responses at the levels of viral replication and virus dissemination. Infection of wild-type mice is associated with histopathological alterations in the intestine (mild inflammation) and the spleen (red pulp hypertrophy and white pulp activation); viral dissemination to the spleen, liver, lung, and lymph nodes; and low-level persistent infection in the spleen. STAT-1 inhibits viral replication in the intestine, prevents virus-induced apoptosis of intestinal cells and splenocytes, and limits viral dissemination to peripheral tissues. These findings demonstrate that murine norovirus infection of wild-type mice is associated with initial enteric seeding and subsequent extraintestinal spread, and they provide mechanistic evidence of the role of STAT-1 in controlling clinical norovirus-induced disease.

Murine norovirus (MNV) is presently the only member of the genus Norovirus in the Caliciviridae that can be propagated in cell culture. The goal of this study was to elucidate the proteolytic processing strategy of MNV during an authentic replication cycle in cells. A proteolytic cleavage map of the ORF1 polyprotein was generated, and the virus-encoded 3C-like (3CL) proteinase ( Noroviruses, members of the family Caliciviridae, are the major etiologic agents of nonbacterial epidemic gastroenteritis (13,27,30,46,48). The lack of a cell culture system for human pathogens has necessitated a recombinant DNA-based approach for the classification of circulating strains, the generation of diagnostic tests, and the elucidation of a proposed virus replication strategy. The human noroviruses segregate into three major genogroups (designated GI, GII, and GIV), with multiple genetic clusters, or genotypes, defined within each genogroup (2, 18, 52). The 7.6-to 7.7-kb RNA genome of the noroviruses is organized into three separate open reading frames (ORFs) (ORFs 1, 2, and 3) (17, 23). ORF1 encodes a large nonstructural polyprotein that is processed by the virusencoded 3C-like (3CL) proteinase (Pro) into the mature nonstructural proteins (17, 23, 25). ORF2 encodes the major capsid protein, VP1, and ORF3 encodes a minor structural protein, VP2 (11,17,23).In in vitro experiments, the human norovirus 3CL Pro recognized five cleavage sites within ORF1 with various efficiencies to release six mature cleavage products with the gene order Nterm-NTPase-p20/p22-VPg-Pro-polymerase (Pol) (4,5,15,25,26,39). In addition, several intermediate precursor products were observed in in vitro studies, but their presence during norovirus replication could not be confirmed in the absence of a cell culture system (4, 25).The recent identification of murine norovirus (MNV) and the discovery that it can be propagated in a murine macrophage-like cell line (RAW264.7 [RAW]) provided the first cell culture system to study the molecular mechanisms of norovirus replication (20, 51). The MNV (murine norovirus 1 [MNV-1]) RNA genome is 7,382 nucleotides (nt) in length, with the coding region flanked by a short, 5-nt sequence at the 5Ј end and a 75-nt sequence at the 3Ј end followed by a poly(A) tail (20). The MNV genome is organized into three ORFs with a predicted gene order identical to that of human noroviruses. However, MNV is sufficiently divergent in its sequence to warrant its segregation into a new norovirus genogroup, designated GV (20,52). Northern blot analysis of MNV-infected cells showed the presence of two major positive-strand RNA species corresponding to the genomic and subgenomic RNA, which is characteristic of calicivirus positive-strand RNA replication (51).The goal of our present work was to define the cleavage map of the MNV nonstructural polyprotein and examine proteolytic processing of norovirus proteins during an authentic infection in cell culture. We demonstrate that the MNV 3CL Pro can mediate the cleavage of the MNV nonstructural po...

Human noroviruses are a major cause of epidemic and sporadic gastroenteritis worldwide, and can chronically infect immunocompromised patients. Efforts to develop effective vaccines and antivirals have been hindered by the uncultivable nature and extreme genetic diversity of human noroviruses. Although they remain a particularly challenging pathogen to study, recent advances in norovirus animal models and in vitro cultivation systems have led to an increased understanding of norovirus molecular biology and replication, pathogenesis, cell tropism, and innate and adaptive immunity. Furthermore, clinical trials of vaccines consisting of nonreplicating virus-like particles have shown promise. In this review, we summarize these recent advances and discuss controversies in the field, which is rapidly progressing towards generation of antiviral agents and increasingly effective vaccines.

Human noroviruses (HunoVs) are a leading cause of foodborne disease and severe childhood diarrhea, and they cause a majority of the gastroenteritis outbreaks worldwide. However, the development of effective and long-lasting HunoV vaccines and therapeutics has been greatly hindered by their uncultivability. We recently demonstrated that a HunoV replicates in human B cells, and that commensal bacteria serve as a cofactor for this infection. In this protocol, we provide detailed methods for culturing the GII.4-sydney HunoV strain directly in human B cells, and in a coculture system in which the virus must cross a confluent epithelial barrier to access underlying B cells. We also describe methods for bacterial stimulation of HunoV B cell infection and for measuring viral attachment to the surface of B cells. Finally, we highlight variables that contribute to the efficiency of viral replication in this system. Infection assays require 3 d and attachment assays require 3 h. analysis of infection or attachment samples, including rna extraction and rt-qpcr, requires ~6 h.

Human noroviruses in the family Caliciviridae are a major cause of epidemic gastroenteritis. They are responsible for at least 95% of viral outbreaks and over 50% of all outbreaks worldwide. Transmission of these highly infectious plus-stranded RNA viruses occurs primarily through contaminated food or water, but also through person-to-person contact and exposure to fomites. Norovirus infections are typically acute and self-limited. However, disease can be much more severe and prolonged in infants, elderly, and immunocompromised individuals. Norovirus outbreaks frequently occur in semi-closed communities such as nursing homes, military settings, schools, hospitals, cruise ships, and disaster relief situations. Noroviruses are classified as Category B biodefense agents because they are highly contagious, extremely stable in the environment, resistant to common disinfectants, and associated with debilitating illness. The number of reported norovirus outbreaks has risen sharply since 2002 suggesting the emergence of more infectious strains. There has also been increased recognition that noroviruses are important causes of childhood hospitalization. Moreover, noroviruses have recently been associated with multiple clinical outcomes other than gastroenteritis. It is unclear whether these new observations are due to improved norovirus diagnostics or to the emergence of more virulent norovirus strains. Regardless, it is clear that human noroviruses cause considerable morbidity worldwide, have significant economic impact, and are clinically important emerging pathogens. Despite the impact of human norovirus-induced disease and the potential for emergence of highly virulent strains, the pathogenic features of infection are not well understood due to the lack of a cell culture system and previous lack of animal models. This review summarizes the current understanding of norovirus pathogenesis from the histological to the molecular level, including contributions from new model systems.