The Multidimensional Model of Racial Identity was used to examine the relationship between racial identity and personal self-esteem (PSE) in a sample of African American college students (n = 173) and a sample of African American high school students (n = 72). Racial identity was assessed using the Centrality and Regard scales of the Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity, whereas the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale was used to assess PSE. Riur predictions were tested: (a) racial centrality is weakly but positively related to PSE; (b) private regard is moderately related to PSE; (c) public regard is unrelated to PSE; and (d) racial centrality moderates the relationship between private regard and PSE. Multiple regression analysis found that racial centrality and public racial regard were unrelated to PSE in both samples. Private regard was positively related to PSE in the college sample. Racial centrality moderated the relationship between private regard and PSE in both samples, such that the relationship was significant for those with high levels of centrality but nonsignificant for those with low levels. At the beginning of this century, W. E. B. Dubois argued that the central problem of American society was that of the color line (Dubois, 1903). An examination of the psychological literature over the past 90 years suggests that Dubois was prophetic. Social psychology has been exploring the meaning of race in the lives of African Americans since its earliest inception. Interestingly, much of the research produced by mainstream psychology suggests that African Americans who identify strongly with being Black may be at psychological risk as a result of the stigma associated with the identity (e.g., Horowitz, 1939; Kardiner & Ovesey, 1951; Steele & Aronson, 1995). Other researchers have tended to suggest that a strong identification with one's race can serve as a protective buffer to personal self-esteem (e.g.,

Racial socialization was examined as a protective factor that might buffer African American youth from the negative effects of perceived racial discrimination. Two types of racial socialization were examined: messages about race pride and preparation for bias. One hundred twenty-eight eighthgrade African American students participated in the study. As anticipated, both types of socialization moderated the relationship between discrimination and self-esteem. The negative relationship between perceived discrimination and self-esteem was mitigated for youth who reported more messages about race pride and a moderate amount of preparation for bias from their parents. In contrast, low race pride socialization and both high and low preparation for bias were associated with a negative relationship between perceived discrimination and self-esteem.The rapid physical, psychological, and social changes that occur during adolescence have ramifications for individuals' evolving sense of identity and make youth vulnerable to a variety of risk factors (Caldwell, Kohn-Wood, Schmeelk-Cone, Chavous, & Zimmerman, 2004). This period may be especially daunting for African American youth as they face the task of developing a positive sense of self as members of a minority group while becoming increasingly aware that society is stratified by ethnicity and race. Racial discrimination, defined as "beliefs, attitudes, institutional arrangements, and acts that tend to denigrate individuals or groups because of phenotypic characteristics or ethnic group affiliation," is often viewed as such a risk factor (Clark, Anderson, Clark, & Williams, 1999, p. 805). Wong, Eccles, and Sameroff (2003) suggest that racism is seen as messages from the environment that individuals are not valued due to their race or ethnicity. Such messages may be particularly salient during adolescence, a vulnerable developmental period when the individual is formulating his or her identity and conceptualizations about the social world.A large body of literature has linked perceived racial discrimination to deleterious physiological and psychological outcomes in African American adults (see Clark et al., 1999, for a review). More recently, researchers have begun to explore the effects of racial discrimination on child and adolescent populations. Results from a number of studies have linked experiences of discrimination and perceived racism to a range of psychosocial (Caldwell et al., 2004;Clark, Coleman, & Novak, 2004;DuBois, Burk-Braxton, Swenson, Tevendale, & Hardesty, 2002;Fisher, Wallace, & Fenton, 2000;Nyborg & Curry, 2003;Prelow, Danoff-Burg, Swenson, & Pulgiano, 2004;Wong et al., 2003). Nonetheless, relatively few studies have investigated possible protective factors that may buffer against the negative effects of perceived discrimination (see Caldwell et al., 2004;Sellers & Shelton, 2003; Wong et al., 2003, for exceptions). Thus, the primary goals of the current study were to investigate the link between perceived racial discrimination and psychological w...

Sociopolitical development (SPD) is the process by which individuals become aware of social inequality, recognize the status of their social identities, and engage in activism. For racially marginalized youth, race is an important aspect of their SPD. Yet few studies have considered the connections between racial factors and youth's SPD. In this article, we introduce an integrative model situating racial sociocultural processes (i.e., racial identity, racial socialization, and experiences of racial discrimination) within current SPD theory. In particular, we look at African American youth as a case study to discuss how sociocultural factors can contribute to youth's awareness of structures of social inequality (i.e., critical social analysis) and engagement in action against social inequality (i.e., sociopolitical action). We conclude with suggestions for research.

This review summarizes the research literature on the academic socialization of children within the family context. A conceptual model is introduced that describes the process of academic socialization, including parental experiences in school, parental school-related cognitions, and specific parenting behaviors. Parental attitudes and practices provide the foundation for children's development of schemas about school performance and thus are critical determinants of children's early school experiences. In addition, recent efforts to understand the role of transition practices aimed at facilitating children's early adjustment in school are described. The present review extends the transition practices literature by providing a developmental perspective on parenting influences on children's academic socialization, within an ecological systems perspective. The authors describe academic socialization as a process that occurs under the broad umbrella of socioeconomic and cultural contexts.

We examined race and gender stereotypes in fourth-, sixth-and eighth-grade White and Black children. The participants reported their perceptions of the competence of Black, White, female and male children in academic domains, sports and music. In general, low-status groups (girls and Black children) did not endorse stereotypes that reflected negatively on their own group but were likely to report stereotypes that favored their social group. High-status groups (boys and Whites) endorsed most traditional stereotypes, whether negative or positive, for their social group. Where age differences appeared, older children were more likely than younger children to report traditional stereotypes and status effects were more pronounced. The results are discussed in terms of group enhancement and relationships between social stereotypes and self-views.