Urinary tract obstruction during renal development leads to tubular apoptosis, tubular atrophy, and interstitial fibrosis. Epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) has been proposed as a key mechanism of myofibroblast accumulation in renal fibrosis. We studied the interplay of leukocyte infiltration, tubular apoptosis, and EMT in renal fibrosis induced by unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO) in neonatal mice. We show that leukocytes mediate tubular apoptosis and EMT in the developing kidney with obstructive nephropathy. Blocking leukocyte recruitment by using the chemokine receptor-1 antagonist BX471 protected against tubular apoptosis and interstitial fibrosis, as evidenced by reduced monocyte influx, a decrease in EMT, and attenuated collagen deposition. EMT was rapidly induced within 24 hours after UUO along with up-regulation of the transcription factors Snail1 and Snail2/Slug, preceding the induction of alpha-smooth muscle actin and vimentin. In the presence of BX471, the expression of chemokines, as well as of Snail1 and Snail2/Slug, in the obstructed kidney was completely attenuated. This was associated with reduced macrophage and T-cell infiltration, tubular apoptosis, and interstitial fibrosis in the developing kidney. Our findings provide evidence that leukocytes induce EMT and renal fibrosis after UUO and suggest that chemokine receptor-1 antagonism may prove beneficial in obstructive nephropathy.
The diversification of neural-crest-derived sympathoadrenal (SA) progenitor cells into sympathetic neurons and neuroendocrine adrenal chromaffin cells was thought to be largely understood. In-vitro studies with isolated SA progenitor cells had suggested that chromaffin cell differentiation depends crucially on glucocorticoids provided by adrenal cortical cells. However, analysis of mice lacking the glucocorticoid receptor gene had revealed that adrenal chromaffin cells develop mostly normally in these mice. Alternative cues from the adrenal cortex that may promote chromaffin cell determination and differentiation have not been identified. We therefore investigated whether the chromaffin cell phenotype can develop in the absence of an adrenal cortex, using mice deficient for the nuclear orphan receptor steroidogenic factor-1 (SF1), which lack adrenal cortical cells and gonads. We show that in Sf1–/– mice typical chromaffin cells assemble correctly in the suprarenal region adjacent to the suprarenal sympathetic ganglion. The cells display most features of chromaffin cells, including the typical large chromaffin granules. Sf1–/–chromaffin cells are numerically reduced by about 50% compared with the wild type at embryonic day (E) 13.5 and E17.5. This phenotype is not accounted for by reduced survival or cell proliferation beyond E12.5. However, already at E12.5 the `adrenal' region in Sf1–/– mice is occupied by fewer PHOX2B+ and TH+ SA cells as well as SOX10+ neural crest cells. Our results suggest that cortical cues are not essential for determining chromaffin cell fate, but may be required for proper migration of SA progenitors to and/or colonization of the adrenal anlage.
Urinary tract obstruction during nephron development causes tubular apoptosis, tubular atrophy, and interstitial fibrosis. Leukocyte recruitment is critical in the development of obstructive nephropathy leading to interstitial inflammation and renal fibrosis. RAGE, the receptor of advanced glycation end products, is implicated in chronic inflammation and has been recently identified as a novel receptor for the β2-integrin Mac-1, cooperating with ICAM-1 and thereby directly mediating leukocyte recruitment in vivo. Here, we studied the role of RAGE and ICAM-1 in a model of unilateral ureteral obstruction in neonatal mice. Interestingly, the number of infiltrating leukocytes was independent of RAGE and ICAM-1 in the ureteral obstructed neonatal kidney. By contrast, galectin-3, a marker for profibrogenic M2 macrophages, was strongly reduced in ureteral obstructed RAGE and RAGE-Icam1 knockout mice. Snail expression and loss of E-cadherin but not NF-κB activation were attenuated in both knockout models. Epithelial cell cycle arrest at G2/M, which mediates kidney fibrosis, and transforming growth factor-β expression were reduced in ureteral obstructed RAGE knockout mice. Thus, RAGE and ICAM-1 promote renal fibrosis in the developing kidney upon ureteral obstruction. Combined RAGE- and ICAM-1-blocking strategies may prove beneficial in neonatal obstructive nephropathy.
Leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) receptor  (LIFR) is a receptor for a variety of neurotrophic cytokines, including LIF, ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF), and cardiotrophin-1 (CT-1). These cytokines play an essential role for the survival and maintenance of developing and postnatal somatic motoneurons. CNTF may also serve the maintenance of autonomic, preganglionic sympathetic neurons (PSNs) in the spinal cord, as suggested by its capacity to prevent their death after destruction of one of their major targets, the adrenal medulla. Although somatic motoneurons and PSNs share a common embryonic origin, they are distinct in several respects, including responses to lesions. We have studied PSNs in mice with targeted deletions of the LIFR or CT-1 genes, respectively. We show that LIF, CNTF, and CT-1 are synthesized in embryonic adrenal gland and spinal cord and that PSNs express LIFR. In embryonic day 18.5 LIFR (Ϫ/Ϫ) and CT-1 (Ϫ/Ϫ) mice, PSNs were reduced by ϳ20%. PSNs projecting to the adrenal medulla were more severely affected (Ϫ55%). Although LIFR (Ϫ/Ϫ) mice revealed normal numbers of adrenal chromaffin cells and axons terminating on chromaffin cells, levels of adrenaline and numbers of adrenaline-synthesizing cells were significantly reduced. We conclude that activation of LIFR is required for normal development of PSNs and one of their prominent targets, the adrenal medulla. Thus, both somatic motoneurons and PSNs in the spinal cord depend on LIFR signaling for their development and maintenance, although PSNs seem to be overall less affected than somatic motoneurons by LIFR deprivation.
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