BackgroundA median, segmented, annelid nerve cord has repeatedly been compared to the arthropod and vertebrate nerve cords and became the most used textbook representation of the annelid nervous system. Recent phylogenomic analyses, however, challenge the hypothesis that a subepidermal rope-ladder-like ventral nerve cord (VNC) composed of a paired serial chain of ganglia and somata-free connectives represents either a plesiomorphic or a typical condition in annelids.ResultsUsing a comparative approach by combining phylogenomic analyses with morphological methods (immunohistochemistry and CLSM, histology and TEM), we compiled a comprehensive dataset to reconstruct the evolution of the annelid VNC. Our phylogenomic analyses generally support previous topologies. However, the so far hard-to-place Apistobranchidae and Psammodrilidae are now incorporated among the basally branching annelids with high support. Based on this topology we reconstruct an intraepidermal VNC as the ancestral state in Annelida. Thus, a subepidermal ladder-like nerve cord clearly represents a derived condition.ConclusionsBased on the presented data, a ladder-like appearance of the ventral nerve cord evolved repeatedly, and independently of the transition from an intraepidermal to a subepidermal cord during annelid evolution. Our investigations thereby propose an alternative set of neuroanatomical characteristics for the last common ancestor of Annelida or perhaps even Spiralia.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (10.1186/s12983-018-0280-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Predatory robber flies (Diptera, Asilidae) have been suspected to be venomous due to their ability to overpower well-defended prey. However, details of their venom composition and toxin arsenal remained unknown. Here, we provide a detailed characterization of the venom system of robber flies through the application of comparative transcriptomics, proteomics and functional morphology. Our results reveal asilid venoms to be dominated by peptides and non-enzymatic proteins, and that the majority of components in the crude venom is represented by just ten toxin families, which we have named Asilidin1-10. Contrary to what might be expected for a liquid-feeding predator, the venoms of robber flies appear to be rich in novel peptides, rather than enzymes with a putative pre-digestive role. The novelty of these peptides suggests that the robber fly venom system evolved independently from hematophagous dipterans and other pancrustaceans. Indeed, six Asilidins match no other venom proteins, while three represent known examples of peptide scaffolds convergently recruited to a toxic function. Of these, members of Asilidin1 closely resemble cysteine inhibitor knot peptides (ICK), of which neurotoxic variants occur in cone snails, assassin bugs, scorpions and spiders. Synthesis of one of these putative ICKs, U-Asilidin 1 -Mar1a, followed by toxicity assays against an ecologically relevant prey model revealed that one of these likely plays a role as a neurotoxin involved in the immobilization of prey. Our results are fundamental to address these insights further and to understand processes that drive venom evolution in dipterans as well as other arthropods.Keywords: Asilidae; neurotoxins; cysteine inhibitor knot peptide; arthropod venom evolution; functional morphology; synchrotron micro computed tomography; Asilidin Key Contribution: This study provides the first comprehensive description of the venom system of two robber flies (Asilidae). We reveal a complex venom apparatus and an unusual, enzyme depleted venom with unique proteins, including also a new, neurotoxic ICK peptide.

Venoms evolved convergently in diverse animal lineages as key adaptations that increase the evolutionary fitness of species which are manifold employed for defense, predation, and competition. They constitute complex cocktails of various toxins that feature a broad range of bioactivities. The majority of described venom proteins belong to protein families that are known to comprise housekeeping genes or harbor protein-domains, which are present in genes with non-venom related functions. However, the evolutionary processes and mechanisms that foster the origin of these venom proteins and triggered their recruitment into the venom delivery system are still critically discussed. In most instances single or combined proteomic and transcriptomic approaches are applied to describe venom compositions and the biological context of venoms. For neglected species these studies represent crucial contributions to improve our understanding of venom diversity on a broader scale. Nonetheless, the inference of the evolutionary origin of putative toxins in these studies could be misleading without appropriate coverage of gene populations from different tissue samples (gene completeness) or complementary genome data. Providing a valid backbone to correctly map transcriptome and proteome data, whole genome sequences facilitate a clear distinction between variability of venom proteins or toxins due to posttranslational modifications, alternative splicing, and false-positive matches that stem from sequencing or read processing and assembly errors. High-quality whole genome sequence data of venomous species are still sparse and unevenly distributed within taxon lineages. However, to reveal the evolutionary pattern of putative toxins in venomous lineages and to identify ancestral variants of venom proteins, the appropriate sampling of genomes from venomous and non-venomous species is crucial. Nevertheless, larger comparative studies based on multiple whole genome data sets are still sparse to uncover processes of venom evolution. Here, we review the general potential of comparative genomics in venomics to unravel mechanisms and patterns of evolutionary origin of toxin genes. Finally, we discuss the benefit of whole genome data to improve transcriptomics and proteomics-only studies, in particular if datasets are applied to assess the evolutionary origin of venom proteins.

Background Venoms and the toxins they contain represent molecular adaptations that have evolved on numerous occasions throughout the animal kingdom. However, the processes that shape venom protein evolution are poorly understood because of the scarcity of whole-genome data available for comparative analyses of venomous species. Results We performed a broad comparative toxicogenomic analysis to gain insight into the genomic mechanisms of venom evolution in robber flies (Asilidae). We first sequenced a high-quality draft genome of the hymenopteran hunting robber fly Dasypogon diadema, analysed its venom by a combined proteotranscriptomic approach, and compared our results with recently described robber fly venoms to assess the general composition and major components of asilid venom. We then applied a comparative genomics approach, based on 1 additional asilid genome, 10 high-quality dipteran genomes, and 2 lepidopteran outgroup genomes, to reveal the evolutionary mechanisms and origins of identified venom proteins in robber flies. Conclusions While homologues were identified for 15 of 30 predominant venom protein in the non-asilid genomes, the remaining 15 highly expressed venom proteins appear to be unique to robber flies. Our results reveal that the venom of D. diadema likely evolves in a multimodal fashion comprising (i) neofunctionalization after gene duplication, (ii) expression-dependent co-option of proteins, and (iii) asilid lineage-specific orphan genes with enigmatic origin. The role of such orphan genes is currently being disputed in evolutionary genomics but has not been discussed in the context of toxin evolution. Our results display an unexpected dynamic venom evolution in asilid insects, which contrasts the findings of the only other insect toxicogenomic evolutionary analysis, in parasitoid wasps (Hymenoptera), where toxin evolution is dominated by single gene co-option. These findings underpin the significance of further genomic studies to cover more neglected lineages of venomous taxa and to understand the importance of orphan genes as possible drivers for venom evolution.

Breast cancer is a heterogeneous disease and the mechanistic framework for differential osteotropism among intrinsic breast cancer subtypes is unknown. Hypothesizing that cell morphology could be an integrated readout for the functional state of a cancer cell, we established a catalogue of the migratory, molecular and biophysical traits of MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells, compared it with two enhanced bone-seeking derivative cell lines and integrated these findings with single cell morphology profiles. Such knowledge could be essential for predicting metastatic capacities in breast cancer. High-resolution microscopy revealed a heterogeneous and specific spectrum of single cell morphologies in bone-seeking cells, which correlated with differential migration and stiffness. While parental MDA-MB-231 cells showed long and dynamic membrane protrusions and were enriched in motile cells with continuous and mesenchymal cell migration, bone-seeking cells appeared with discontinuous mesenchymal or amoeboid-like migration. Although non-responsive to CXCL12, bone-seeking cells responded to epidermal growth factor with a morphotype shift and differential expression of genes controlling cell shape and directional migration. Hence, single cell morphology encodes the molecular, migratory and biophysical architecture of breast cancer cells and is specifically altered among osteotropic phenotypes. Quantitative morpho-profiling could aid in dissecting breast cancer heterogeneity and in refining clinically relevant intrinsic breast cancer subtypes.

BackgroundWe present the first molecular characterization of glycerotoxin (GLTx), a potent neurotoxin found in the venom of the bloodworm Glycera tridactyla (Glyceridae, Annelida). Within the animal kingdom, GLTx shows a unique mode of action as it can specifically up-regulate the activity of Cav2.2 channels (N-type) in a reversible manner. The lack of sequence information has so far hampered a detailed understanding of its mode of action.ResultsOur analyses reveal three ~3.8 kb GLTx full-length transcripts, show that GLTx represents a multigene family, and suggest it functions as a dimer. An integrative approach using transcriptomics, quantitative real-time PCR, in situ hybridization, and immunocytochemistry shows that GLTx is highly expressed exclusively in four pharyngeal lobes, a previously unrecognized part of the venom apparatus.ConclusionsOur results overturn a century old textbook view on the glycerid venom system, suggesting that it is anatomically and functionally much more complex than previously thought. The herein presented GLTx sequence information constitutes an important step towards the establishment of GLTx as a versatile tool to understand the mechanism of synaptic function, as well as the mode of action of this novel neurotoxin.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12862-017-0904-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Drug combination therapies for cancer treatment show high efficacy but often induce severe side effects, resulting in dose or cycle number reduction. We investigated the impact of neoadjuvant chemotherapy (neoCTx) adaptions on treatment outcome in 59 patients with pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). Resections with tumor‐free margins were significantly more frequent when full‐dose neoCTx was applied. We determined if patient‐derived organoids (PDOs) can be used to personalize poly‐chemotherapy regimens by pharmacotyping of treatment‐naïve and post‐neoCTx PDAC PDOs. Five out of ten CTx‐naïve PDO lines exhibited a differential response to either the FOLFIRINOX or the Gem/Pac regimen. NeoCTx PDOs showed a poor response to the neoadjuvant regimen that had been administered to the respective patient in 30% of cases. No significant difference in PDO response was noted when comparing modified treatments in which the least effective single drug was removed from the complete regimen. Drug testing of CTx‐naïve PDAC PDOs and neoCTx PDOs may be useful to guide neoadjuvant and adjuvant regimen selection, respectively. Personalizing poly‐chemotherapy regimens by omitting substances with low efficacy could potentially result in less severe side effects, thereby increasing the fraction of patients receiving a full course of neoadjuvant treatment. © 2022 The Authors. The Journal of Pathology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of The Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland.

Continuous activation of hypoxia pathways in pheochromocytomas and paragangliomas (PPGLs) is associated with higher disease aggressiveness, for which effective treatment strategies are still missing. Most of the commonly used in vitro models lack characteristics of these pseudohypoxic tumors, including elevated expression of hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) 2α. To address this shortcoming, we investigated whether recurrent hypoxia cycles lead to continuous activation of hypoxia pathways under normoxic conditions and whether this pseudohypoxia is associated with increased cellular aggressiveness. Rat pheochromocytoma cells (PC12) were incubated under hypoxia for 24 h every 3–4 days, up to 20 hypoxia–reoxygenation cycles, resulting in PC12 Z20 cells. PC12 Z20 control cells were obtained by synchronous cultivation under normoxia. RNA sequencing revealed upregulation of HIF2α in PC12 Z20 cells and a pseudohypoxic gene signature that overlapped with the gene signature of pseudohypoxic PPGLs. PC12 Z20 cells showed a higher growth rate, and the migration and adhesion capacity were significantly increased compared with control cells. Changes in global methylation, together with the pseudohypoxic conditions, may be responsible for the increased aggressiveness of this new model. The established sub-cell line with characteristics of pseudohypoxic PPGLs represent a complementary model for further investigations, for example, with regard to new therapeutic approaches.