Chronic graft-versus-host disease (cGVHD) causes significant morbidity and mortality in patients otherwise cured of malignancy after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). The presence of alloantibodies and high plasma B cell–activating factor (BAFF) levels in patients with cGVHD suggest that B cells play a role in disease pathogenesis. We performed detailed phenotypic and functional analyses of peripheral B cells in 82 patients after HSCT. Patients with cGVHD had significantly higher BAFF/B-cell ratios compared with patients without cGVHD or healthy donors. In cGVHD, increasing BAFF concentrations correlated with increased numbers of circulating pre–germinal center (GC) B cells and post-GC “plasmablast-like” cells, suggesting in vivo BAFF dependence of these 2 CD27+ B-cell subsets. Circulating CD27+ B cells in cGVHD comprised in vivo activated B cells capable of IgG production without requiring additional antigen stimulation. Serial studies revealed that patients who subsequently developed cGVHD had delayed reconstitution of naive B cells despite persistent BAFF elevation as well as proportional increase in CD27+ B cells in the first year after HSCT. These studies delineate specific abnormalities of B-cell homeostasis in patients with cGVHD and suggest that BAFF targeting agents may be useful in this disease.

Summary Chronic graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) is the leading cause of late, non-relapse, mortality and disability in allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT) patients and a major obstacle to improving outcomes. Chronic GVHD biology remains enigmatic, but understanding the underpinnings of the immunologic mechanisms responsible for the initiation and progression of disease is fundamental to developing effective prevention and treatment strategies. The goals of this task force review are as follows: Summarize the current “state-of-the-science” regarding pathogenic mechanisms of chronic GVHD and critical knowledge gaps.Develop working hypotheses/overriding concepts for chronic GVHD development.Define the usefulness of current preclinical models to test working hypotheses and ultimately discover and develop new therapeutic strategies.Identify shortcomings of preclinical models, and define criteria for the creation of additional models to address these limitations. This document is intended as a review of our understanding of chronic GVHD biology and therapies resulting from preclinical studies, and as a platform for developing innovative clinical strategies to prevent and treat chronic GVHD.

Key Points• T follicular helper cells and germinal center B cells are increased and strongly correlate with the development of cGVHD in a murine model. • Blocking mAbs for IL-21, ICOS, and CD40L are potential novel therapeutics for cGVHD.Chronic graft-versus-host disease (cGVHD) is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Having shown that germinal center (GC) formation and immunoglobulin deposition are required for multiorgan system cGVHD and associated bronchiolitis obliterans syndrome (BOS) in a murine model, we hypothesized that T follicular helper (Tfh) cells are necessary for cGVHD by supporting GC formation and maintenance. We show that increased frequency of Tfh cells correlated with increased GC B cells, cGVHD, and BOS. Although administering a highly depletionary anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody (mAb) to mice with established cGVHD resulted in peripheral B-cell depletion, B cells remained in the lung, and BOS was not reversed. BOS could be treated by eliminating production of interleukin-21 (IL-21) by donor T cells or IL-21 receptor (IL-21R) signaling of donor B cells. Development of BOS was dependent upon T cells expressing the chemokine receptor CXCR5 to facilitate T-cell trafficking to secondary lymphoid organ follicles. Blocking mAbs for IL-21/IL-21R, inducible T-cell costimulator (ICOS)/ICOS ligand, and CD40L/CD40 hindered GC formation and cGVHD. These data provide novel insights into cGVHD pathogenesis, indicate a role for Tfh cells in these processes, and suggest a new line of therapy using mAbs targeting Tfh cells to reverse cGVHD. (Blood. 2014;123(25):3988-3998)

Purpose: Recent studies suggest that donor B cells as well as T cells contribute to immune pathology in patients with chronic graft-versus-host disease (GVHD). B-cell activating factor (BAFF) promotes survival and differentiation of activated B cells. Thus, we tested whether BAFF correlated with chronic GVHD disease activity and time of onset after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). Experimental Design: Patients who had undergone allogeneic HSCT between 1994 and 2005 for hematologic malignancies were studied. ELISA was used to measure plasma BAFF levels and flow cytometry was used to assess BAFF receptor expression on B cells in patients with or without chronic GVHD. Results: In 104 patients, BAFF levels were significantly higher in patients with active chronic GVHD compared with those without disease (P = 0.02 and 0.0004, respectively).Treatment with high-dose prednisone (z30 mg/d) was associated with reduced BAFF levels in patients with active chronic GVHD (P = 0.0005). Serial studies in 24 patients showed that BAFF levels were high in the first 3 months after HSCT but subsequently decreased in 13 patients who never developed chronic GVHD. In contrast, BAFF levels remained elevated in 11 patients who developed chronic GVHD. Six-month BAFF levels z10 ng/mL were strongly associated with subsequent development of chronic GVHD (P < 0.0001). Following transplant, plasma BAFF levels correlated inversely with BAFF receptor expression on B cells (P = 0.01), suggesting that soluble BAFF affected B cells through this receptor. Conclusion: These results suggest that elevated BAFF levels contribute to B-cell activation in patients with active chronic GVHD.

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Recent data reveal an important role for B cells in the pathogenesis of chronic GVHD (cGVHD).

GVHD is a syndrome that results from minor and major histocompatibility complex incompatibilities between the donor and recipient. More than 50 years after its initial description, the pathophysiology of GVHD remains poorly understood.

Investigation of the effects of rituximab (anti-CD20) on B-cell-activating factor of the tumor necrosis factor family (BAFF) and B cells would better define the significance of B-cell homeostasis in chronic graft-versus-host disease (cGVHD) pathophysiology. We studied 20 cGVHD patients at a median of 25 months after rituximab treatment when most patients had recovered total B-cell numbers. A total of 55% of patients had stable/improved cGVHD, and total B-cell numbers in these patients were significantly higher