Muropeptides are a group of bacterial natural products generated from the cell wall in the course of its turnover. These compounds are cell-wall recycling intermediates and also are involved in signalling functions within the bacterium. However, identity of these signalling molecules remains elusive. The identification and characterization of 20 muropeptides from Pseudomonas aeruginosa is described. The least abundant of these metabolites is present at 100 and the most abundant at 55,000 molecules per bacterium. Analysis of these muropeptides under conditions of induction of resistance to a β-lactam antibiotic identified two signaling muropeptides (N-acetylglucosamine-1,6-anhydro-N-acetylmuramyl pentapeptide and 1,6-anhydro-N-acetylmuramyl pentapeptide). Authentic synthetic samples of these metabolites were shown to activate expression of β-lactamase in the absence of any β-lactam antibiotic, hence they serve as chemical signals in this complex biochemical pathway.

SPOR domains are widely present in bacterial proteins that recognize cell-wall peptidoglycan strands stripped of the peptide stems. This type of peptidoglycan is enriched in the septal ring as a product of catalysis by cell-wall amidases that participate in the separation of daughter cells during cell division. Here, we document binding of synthetic denuded glycan ligands to the SPOR domain of the lytic transglycosylase RlpA from Pseudomonas aeruginosa (SPOR-RlpA) by mass spectrometry and structural analyses, and demonstrate that indeed the presence of peptide stems in the peptidoglycan abrogates binding. The crystal structures of the SPOR domain, in the apo state and in complex with different synthetic glycan ligands, provide insights into the molecular basis for recognition and delineate a conserved pattern in other SPOR domains. The biological and structural observations presented here are followed up by molecular-dynamics simulations and by exploration of the effect on binding of distinct peptidoglycan modifications.

The N-acetylglucosaminidase NagZ of Pseudomonas aeruginosa catalyzes the first cytoplasmic step in recycling of muropeptides, cell-wall-derived natural products. This reaction regulates gene expression for the β-lactam resistance enzyme, β-lactamase. The enzyme catalyzes hydrolysis of N-acetyl-β-d-glucosamine-(1→4)1,6-anhydro-N-acetyl-β-d-muramyl-peptide (1) to N-acetyl-β-d-glucosamine (2) and 1,6-anhydro-N-acetyl-β-d-muramyl-peptide (3). The structural and functional aspects of catalysis by NagZ were investigated by a total of seven X-ray structures, three computational models based on the X-ray structures, molecular-dynamics simulations and mutagenesis. The structural insights came from the unbound state and complexes of NagZ with the substrate, products and a mimetic of the transient oxocarbenium species, which were prepared by synthesis. The mechanism involves a histidine as acid/base catalyst, which is unique for glycosidases. The turnover process utilizes covalent modification of D244, requiring two transition-state species and is regulated by coordination with a zinc ion. The analysis provides a seamless continuum for the catalytic cycle, incorporating large motions by four loops that surround the active site.

For intracellular Chlamydiaceae, there is no need to withstand osmotic challenges, and a functional cell wall has not been detected in these pathogens so far. Nevertheless, penicillin inhibits cell division in Chlamydiaceae resulting in enlarged aberrant bodies, a phenomenon known as chlamydial anomaly. D-alanine is a unique and essential component in the biosynthesis of bacterial cell walls. In free-living bacteria like Escherichia coli, penicillin-binding proteins such as monofunctional transpeptidases PBP2 and PBP3, the putative targets of penicillin in Chlamydiaceae, cross-link adjacent peptidoglycan strands via meso-diaminopimelic acid and D-Ala-D-Ala moieties of pentapeptide side chains. In the absence of genes coding for alanine racemase Alr and DadX homologs, the source of D-Ala and thus the presence of substrates for PBP2 and PBP3 activity in Chlamydiaceae has puzzled researchers for years. Interestingly, Chlamydiaceae genomes encode GlyA, a serine hydroxymethyltransferase that has been shown to exhibit slow racemization of D- and L-alanine as a side reaction in E. coli. We show that GlyA from Chlamydia pneumoniae can serve as a source of D-Ala. GlyA partially reversed the D-Ala auxotrophic phenotype of an E. coli racemase double mutant. Moreover, purified chlamydial GlyA had racemase activity on L-Ala in vitro and was inhibited by D-cycloserine, identifying GlyA, besides D-Ala ligase MurC/Ddl, as an additional target of this competitive inhibitor in Chlamydiaceae. Proof of D-Ala biosynthesis in Chlamydiaceae helps to clarify the structure of cell wall precursor lipid II and the role of chlamydial penicillin-binding proteins in the development of non-dividing aberrant chlamydial bodies and persistence in the presence of penicillin.

The protein networks of cell-wall-biosynthesis assemblies are largely unknown. A key class of enzymes in these assemblies is the lytic transglycosylases (LTs), of which eleven exist in P. aeruginosa. We have undertaken a pulldown strategy in conjunction with mass-spectrometry-based proteomics to identify the putative binding partners for the eleven LTs of P. aeruginosa. A total of 71 putative binding partners were identified for the eleven LTs. A systematic assessment of the binding partners of the rare lipoprotein A (RlpA), one of the pseudomonal LTs, was made. This 37-kDa lipoprotein is involved in bacterial daughter-cell separation by an unknown process. RlpA participates in both the multi-protein and multi-enzyme divisome and elongasome assemblies. We reveal an extensive protein-interaction network for RlpA involving at least 19 proteins. Their kinetic parameters for interaction with RlpA were assessed by microscale thermophoresis, surface-plasmon resonance, and isothermal-titration calorimetry. Notable RlpA binding partners include PBP1b, PBP4, and SltB1. Elucidation of the protein-interaction networks for each of the LTs, and specifically for RlpA, opens opportunities for the study of their roles in the complex protein assemblies intimately involved with the cell wall as a structural edifice critical for bacterial survival.

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Cloning of the bglX (PA1726) gene and purification of BglX wild-type and D286N variant S1 Generation of a bglX::Tn strain harboring a BglX-producing plasmid (bglX::Tn/pBglX) S1

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