The ways in which people deal with complex and dynamic problems are shaped by their learning experiences within their culture as well as the functional constraints within which they have to operate. An experiment is described that explores the interaction of culture and ways of problem solving. University students from India and Germany had to work on one of two different versions of a computer‐simulated interactive complex problem. The anaylsis focuses on the strategic aspects of problem solving. Indian and German problem solvers clearly differed in their approach: German students used a more active and control‐oriented strategy and committed fewer strategic and tactical errors. The results form the basis of a discussion on the factors important in the development of problem‐solving expertise.
This article explores some of the basic shortcomings and fallacies of managerial behavior in dynamic situations. In a laboratory study, 20 groups of three participants each, all with an education in business management, were observed while trying to manage a computer-simulated industrial organization called MANUTEX. This is an interactive simulation of a small garment factory. For most groups, this problem proved to be extremely difficult. The analysis of the problem-solving process and the strategies that the participants employ show that several typical mistakes were responsible for the groups' difficulties. These mistakes are integrated into a number of generic behavior patterns and uncontested basic assumptions that guide action. The participants' difficulties are not due to insufficient managerial knowledge or cognitive limitations. Rather, they stem from an incorrect use of the available knowledge, a tendency to avoid risks and reduce uncertainty, and a motivational process directed at sheltering the subjective sense of competence.
Emergency management training programs have been developed mostly for trainees from high-risk environments such as aviation or the chemical industry. This article describes a training program for staff members from low-risk environments such as hospitals or hotels, where the awareness of potential dangers is usually low and emergency plans are often outdated or missing. The goal is to equip members of such organizations with some basic competencies necessary for effective functioning in the context of an emergency management team. The training is based on learning by doing, guided reflection, and instruction. The main training tool is a dynamic and interactive computer simulation of a passenger cruiser called MS ANTWERPEN. Participants enact different roles of this ship's leading crew and are confronted with a number of crises and emergencies. Results of a pilot evaluation study with staff members from a large hospital confirm the expectations regarding the effectiveness of the approach.KEYWORDS: complex problem solving; computer simulation; emergency management; low-risk environment; team; training Decision making in highly dynamic, complex, and opaque situations is difficult. The literature on complex problem solving and natural decision making provides interesting insights into human error tendencies and has pointed to numerous traps and pitfalls we are likely to stumble into (Dörner, 1996a;Dörner & Schaub, 1994;Frensch & Funke, 1995;Klein, 1996Klein, , 1997Strohschneider & Güss, 1999). If we translate "complex problem solving" into "management of crises and emergencies" (see, e.g., Danielsson & Ohlsson, 1997), it has become quite obvious that training and education are mandatory. After all, emergencies and crises are among those situations where deficient problem solving is dangerous and can become extremely costly on different dimensions.During the past two or three decades, the design of training programs appears to have undergone considerable change. Basically, it was learned that many of the classical "hard skills" that are required for operational personnel need to be supplemented AUTHORS'NOTE: We would like to thank Peter Schindewolf for his assistance in collecting and evaluating the data. We are also indebted to Detlef Klimpe, Friedebert Kröger, and Askan Hendrischke from the University Hospital, Aachen, for their ideas and their support in developing and testing the simulation. SIMULATION & GAMING, Vol. 34 with what has been called "soft skills" when it comes to emergency management "staff work" that focuses on planning, coordinating, and monitoring operative procedures (Helmreich & Foushee, 1993;Helmreich, Merritt, & Wilhelm, 1999;Orasanu & Backer, 1996). One reason behind this development is the increasing importance of communication and coordination within and between emergency management teams (Schaafstal, Johnston, & Oser, 2001). Staff work in this area poses quite different requirements than those faced by the operational personnel directly facing the emergency. Another reason behind this de...
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