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The disease non-insulin-dependent (type 2) diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) is characterized by abnormally high blood glucose resulting from a relative deficiency of insulin. It affects about 2% of the world's population and treatment of diabetes and its complications are an increasing health-care burden. Genetic factors are important in the aetiology of NIDDM, and linkage studies are starting to localize some of the genes that influence the development of this disorder. Maturity-onset diabetes of the young (MODY), a single-gene disorder responsible for 2-5% of NIDDM, is characterized by autosomal dominant inheritance and an age of onset of 25 years or younger. MODY genes have been localized to chromosomes 7, 12 and 20 (refs 5, 7, 8) and clinical studies indicate that mutations in these genes are associated with abnormal patterns of glucose-stimulated insulin secretion. The gene on chromosome 7 (MODY2) encodes the glycolytic enzyme glucokinases which plays a key role in generating the metabolic signal for insulin secretion and in integrating hepatic glucose uptake. Here we show that subjects with the MODY3-form of NIDDM have mutations in the gene encoding hepatocyte nuclear factor-1alpha (HNF-1alpha, which is encoded by the gene TCF1). HNF-1alpha is a transcription factor that helps in the tissue-specific regulation of the expression of several liver genes and also functions as a weak transactivator of the rat insulin-I gene.

The disease maturity-onset diabetes of the young (MODY) is a genetically heterogeneous monogenic form of non-insulin-dependent (type 2) diabetes mellitus (NIDDM), characterized by early onset, usually before 25 years of age and often in adolescence or childhood, and by autosomal dominant inheritance. It has been estimated that 2-5% of patients with NIDDM may have this form of diabetes mellitus. Clinical studies have shown that prediabetic MODY subjects have normal insulin sensitivity but suffer from a defect in glucose-stimulated insulin secretion, suggesting that pancreatic beta-cell dysfunction rather than insulin resistance is the primary defect in this disorder. Linkage studies have localized the genes that are mutated in MODY on human chromosomes 20 (MODY1), 7 (MODY2) and 12 (MODY3), with MODY2 and MODY3 being allelic with the genes encoding glucokinase, a key regulator of insulin secretion, and hepatocyte nuclear factor-1alpha (HNF-1alpha), a transcription factor involved in tissue-specific regulation of liver genes but also expressed in pancreatic islets, insulinoma cells and other tissues. Here we show that MODY1 is the gene encoding HNF-4alpha (gene symbol, TCF14), a member of the steroid/thyroid hormone receptor superfamily and an upstream regulator of HNF-1alpha expression.

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This review summarizes aspects of the phenotypic expression, natural history, recognition, pathogenesis, and heterogeneous nature of maturity-onset diabetes of the young (MODY), which is inherited in an autosomal-dominant pattern. There are differences in metabolic, hormonal, and vascular abnormalities in different ethnic groups and even among White pedigrees. In MODY patients with low insulin responses, there are delayed and decreased insulin and C-peptide secretory responses to glucose from childhood or adolescence even before glucose intolerance appears, which may represent the basic genetic defect. When followed for decades, nondiabetic siblings have normal insulin responses. The fasting hyperglycemia of some MODY patients has been treated successfully with sulfonylureas for up to 30 yr. In a few patients, after years or decades of diabetes, the insulin and C-peptide responses to glucose are so low that they resemble those of early insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. The progression of the insulin secretory defect over time distinguishes between these two types of diabetes. In contrast are patients from families who have very high insulin responses to glucose, despite glucose intolerance and fasting hyperglycemia similar to that seen in patients with low insulin responses. In many of these patients, there is in vivo and in vitro evidence of insulin resistance. Whatever its mechanism, the compensatory insulin responses to nutrients must be insufficient to maintain normal carbohydrate tolerance. This suggests that diabetes occurs only in those patients who have an additional islet cell defect, i.e., insufficient beta-cell reserve and secretory capacity. In a few MODY pedigrees with high insulin responses to glucose and lack of evidence of insulin resistance, a structurally abnormal mutant insulin molecule that is biologically ineffective is secreted. No associations have been found between specific HLA antigens and MODY in White, Black, and Asian pedigrees. Linkage studies of the insulin gene, insulin-receptor gene, erythrocyte/HepG2 glucose-transporter locus, and apolipoprotein B locus have shown no association with MODY. Vascular disease may be as prevalent as in conventional non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Because of autosomal-dominant transmission and penetrance at a young age, MODY is a good model for further investigations of etiologic and pathogenetic factors in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, including the use of genetic linkage strategies to identify diabetogenic genes.

Hepatocyte nuclear factor-1a (HNF-1␣) is a transcription factor that plays an important role in regulation of gene expression in pancreatic ␤-cells, intestine, kidney, and liver. Heterozygous mutations in the HNF-1␣ gene are responsible for maturity-onset diabetes of the young (MODY3), which is characterized by pancreatic ␤-cell-deficient insulin secretion. HNF-1␣ is a major transcriptional regulator of many genes expressed in the liver. However, no liver defect has been identified in individuals with HNF-1␣ mutations. In this study, we show that Hnf-1␣ is a potent transcriptional activator of the gene encoding apolipoprotein M (apoM), a lipoprotein that is associated with the HDL particle. Mutant Hnf-1␣ ؊/؊ mice completely lack expression of apoM in the liver and the kidney. Serum apoM levels in Hnf-1␣ ؉/؊ mice are reduced ϳ50% compared with wild-type animals and are absent in the HDL and HDLc fractions of Hnf-1␣ ؊/؊ . We analyzed the apoM promoter and identified a conserved HNF-1 binding site. We show that Hnf-1␣ is a potent activator of the apoM promoter, that a specific mutation in the HNF-1 binding site abolished transcriptional activation of the apoM gene, and that Hnf-1␣ protein can bind to the Hnf-1 binding site of the apoM promoter in vitro. To investigate whether patients with mutations in HNF-1␣ mutations (MODY3) have reduced serum apoM levels, we measured apoM levels in the serum of nine HNF-1␣/MODY3 patients, nine normal matched control subjects (HNF-1␣ ؉/؉ ), and nine HNF-4␣/MODY1 subjects. Serum levels of apoM were decreased in HNF-1␣/MODY3 subjects when compared with control subjects (P < 0.02) as well as with HNF-4␣/MODY1 subjects, indicating that HNF-1␣ haploinsufficiency rather than hyperglycemia is the primary cause of decreased serum apoM protein concentrations. This study demonstrates that HNF-1␣ is required for apoM expression in vivo and that heterozygous HNF-1␣ mutations lead to an HNF-1␣-dependent impairment of apoM expression. ApoM levels may be a useful serum marker for the identification of MODY3 patients.

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