Pluripotent stem cells hold enomous potential for therapuetic applications in tissue replacement therapy. Reprogramming somatic cells from a patient donor to generate pluripotent stem cells involves both ethical concerns inherent in the use of embryonic and oocyte-derived stem cells, as well as issues of histocompatibility. Among the various pluripotent stem cells, induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC)—derived by ectopic expression of four reprogramming factors in donor somatic cells—are superior in terms of ethical use, histocompatibility, and derivation method. However, iPSC also show genetic and epigenetic differences that limit their differentiation potential, functionality, safety, and potential clinical utility. Here, we discuss the unique characteristics of iPSC and approaches that are being taken to overcome these limitations.
This paper gives a brief timeline of the evolution of the field of Artificial Intelligence (AI), a field that is currently generating approximately sixty thousand research papers per year. This represents a 12.9% growth in output over the past five years, and is markedly higher than the growth seen across all research, which has grown at a rate of 2.3% per year in the same period. AI research is of interest around the world and this paper highlights many of the activities undertaken to stimulate this research in the USA,
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