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Previously, we calculated a consensus amino acid sequence from 13 homologous fungal phytases. A synthetic gene was constructed and recombinantly expressed. Surprisingly, consensus phytase-1 was 15-26 degrees C more thermostable than all parent phytases used in its design [Lehmann et al. (2000)Protein Eng., 13, 49-57]. In the present study, inclusion of six further phytase sequences in the amino acid sequence alignment resulted in the replacement of 38 amino acid residues in either one or both of the new consensus phytases-10 and -11. Since consensus phytase-10, again, was 7.4 degrees C more thermostable than consensus phytase-1, the thermostability effects of most of the 38 amino acid substitutions were tested by site-directed mutagenesis. Both stabilizing and destabilizing mutations were identified, but all affected the stability of the enzyme by <3 degrees C. The combination of all stabilizing amino acid exchanges in a multiple mutant of consensus phytase-1 increased the unfolding temperature from 78.0 to 88.5 degrees C. Likewise, back-mutation of four destabilizing amino acids and introduction of an additional stabilizing amino acid in consensus phytase-10 further increased the unfolding temperature from 85.4 to 90.4 degrees C. The thermostabilization achieved is the result of a combination of slight improvements from multiple amino acid exchanges rather than being the effect of a single or of just a few dominating mutations that have been introduced by chance. The present findings support the general validity of the consensus concept for thermostability engineering of proteins.

Phytases catalyze the hydrolysis of phosphomonoester bonds of phytate (myo-inositol hexakisphosphate), thereby creating lower forms of myo-inositol phosphates and inorganic phosphate. In this study, cDNA expression libraries were constructed from four basidiomycete fungi (Peniophora lycii, Agrocybe pediades, a Ceriporia sp., and Trametes pubescens) and screened for phytase activity in yeast. One full-length phytaseencoding cDNA was isolated from each library, except for the Ceriporia sp. library where two different phytase-encoding cDNAs were found. All five phytases were expressed in Aspergillus oryzae, purified, and characterized. The phytases revealed temperature optima between 40 and 60°C and pH optima at 5.0 to 6.0, except for the P. lycii phytase, which has a pH optimum at 4.0 to 5.0. They exhibited specific activities in the range of 400 to 1,200 U ⅐ mg, of protein ؊1 and were capable of hydrolyzing phytate down to myo-inositol monophosphate. Surprisingly, 1 H nuclear magnetic resonance analysis of the hydrolysis of phytate by all five basidiomycete phytases showed a preference for initial attack at the 6-phosphate group of phytic acid, a characteristic that was believed so far not to be seen with fungal phytases. Accordingly, the basidiomycete phytases described here should be grouped as 6-phytases (EC 3.1.3.26).Phytases (myo-inositol hexakisphosphate phosphohydrolases) belong to the family of histidine acid phosphatases sharing the sequence consensus pattern(27; http://www.expasy.ch /cgi-bin/get-prodoc-entry?PDOC00538). They are capable of catalyzing the hydrolysis of phosphomonoester bonds of phytate (salts of myo-inositol hexakisphosphate or myo-inositol 1,2,3,4,5,6-hexakis dihydrogen phosphate), thereby creating lower forms of myo-inositol phosphates and inorganic phosphate (22,24). Phytases are grouped according to the specific position of the phosphate ester group on the phytate molecule at which hydrolysis is initiated, i.e., as 3-phytases (EC 3.1.3.8) or as 6-phytases (EC 3.1.3.26).Phytate is the primary source of inositol and the primary storage form of phosphate in plant seeds (23). Seeds, cereal grains, and legumes are important components of food and, in particular, of animal feed preparations. However, monogastric animals such as poultry and swine are incapable of utilizing the phosphorus bound in phytate due to low levels of phytase activity in the digestive tract. Furthermore, phytate acts as an antinutrient by chelating divalent cations and preventing the uptake of minerals, e.g., Zn (9). Thus, phytases are used as a cereal feed additive that enhances the phosphorus and mineral uptake in monogastric animals and reduces the level of phosphate output in their manure. Recently, there have been several reports on the cloning of fungal PhyA phytases from Aspergillus niger (16,20, 28), Aspergillus fumigatus (19), Aspergillus terreus, Myceliophthora thermophila (14), Emericella nidulans, Talaromyces thermophilus (18), and Thermomyces lanuginosus (2). Based on their characteristics and on their s...

The kinetics of cellulose hydrolysis have longbeen described by an initial fast hydrolysis rate, tapering rapidly off, leading to a process that takes days rather than hours to complete. This behavior has been mainly attributed to the action of cellobiohydrolases and often linked to the processive mechanism of this exo-acting group of enzymes. The initial kinetics of endo-glucanases (EGs) is far less investigated, partly due to a limited availability of quantitative assay technologies. We have used isothermal calorimetry to monitor the early time course of the hydrolysis of insoluble cellulose by the three main EGs from Trichoderma reesei (Tr): TrCel7B (formerly EG I), TrCel5A (EG II), and TrCel12A (EG III). These endo-glucanases show a distinctive initial burst with a maximal rate that is about 5-fold higher than the rate after 5 min of hydrolysis. The burst is particularly conspicuous for TrCel7B, which reaches a maximal turnover of about 20 s ؊1 at 30°C and conducts about 1200 catalytic cycles per enzyme molecule in the initial fast phase. For TrCel5A and TrCel12A the extent of the burst is 2-300 cycles per enzyme molecule. The availability of continuous data on EG activity allows an analysis of the mechanisms underlying the initial kinetics, and it is suggested that the slowdown is linked to transient inactivation of enzyme on the cellulose surface. We propose, therefore, that the frequency of structures on the substrate surface that cause transient inactivation determine the extent of the burst phase.

BackgroundGlutamic peptidases, from the MEROPS family G1, are a distinct group of peptidases characterized by a catalytic dyad consisting of a glutamate and a glutamine residue, optimal activity at acidic pH and insensitivity towards the microbial derived protease inhibitor, pepstatin. Previously, only glutamic peptidases derived from filamentous fungi have been characterized.ResultsWe report the first characterization of a bacterial glutamic peptidase (pepG1), derived from the thermoacidophilic bacteria Alicyclobacillus sp. DSM 15716. The amino acid sequence identity between pepG1 and known fungal glutamic peptidases is only 24-30% but homology modeling, the presence of the glutamate/glutamine catalytic dyad and a number of highly conserved motifs strongly support the inclusion of pepG1 as a glutamic peptidase. Phylogenetic analysis places pepG1 and other putative bacterial and archaeal glutamic peptidases in a cluster separate from the fungal glutamic peptidases, indicating a divergent and independent evolution of bacterial and fungal glutamic peptidases. Purification of pepG1, heterologously expressed in Bacillus subtilis, was performed using hydrophobic interaction chromatography and ion exchange chromatography. The purified peptidase was characterized with respect to its physical properties. Temperature and pH optimums were found to be 60°C and pH 3-4, in agreement with the values observed for the fungal members of family G1. In addition, pepG1 was found to be pepstatin-insensitive, a characteristic signature of glutamic peptidases.ConclusionsBased on the obtained results, we suggest that pepG1 can be added to the MEROPS family G1 as the first characterized bacterial member.

For industrial applications in animal feed, a phytase of interest must be optimally active in the pH range prevalent in the digestive tract. Therefore, the present investigation describes approaches to rationally engineer the pH activity profiles of Aspergillus fumigatus and consensus phytases. Decreasing the negative surface charge of the A. fumigatus Q27L phytase mutant by glycinamidylation of the surface carboxy groups (of Asp and Glu residues) lowered the pH optimum by ca. 0.5 unit but also resulted in 70 to 75% inactivation of the enzyme. Alternatively, detailed inspection of amino acid sequence alignments and of experimentally determined or homology modeled three-dimensional structures led to the identification of active-site amino acids that were considered to correlate with the activity maxima at low pH of A. niger NRRL 3135 phytase, A. niger pH 2.5 acid phosphatase, and Peniophora lycii phytase. Site-directed mutagenesis confirmed that, in A. fumigatus wild-type phytase, replacement of Gly-277 and Tyr-282 with the corresponding residues of A. niger phytase (Lys and His, respectively) gives rise to a second pH optimum at 2.8 to 3.4. In addition, the K68A single mutation (in both A. fumigatus and consensus phytase backbones), as well as the S140Y D141G double mutation (in A. fumigatus phytase backbones), decreased the pH optima with phytic acid as substrate by 0.5 to 1.0 unit, with either no change or even a slight increase in maximum specific activity. These findings significantly extend our tools for rationally designing an optimal phytase for a given purpose.Active sites typically contain ionizable groups (Arg, Lys, His, Glu, and Asp) that are involved in substrate or product binding and/or catalysis and that determine the pH activity profile of an enzyme (2). Both for physiological constraints and for industrial applications, it is crucial that an enzyme works properly at the appropriate pH value(s). However, no truly reliable methods for modifying the pH activity profile of an enzyme are yet available. In order to understand more clearly how nature masters catalysis at physiological pH values and to rationally tailor enzymes for industrial use at a predefined pH value, it is important to gain more experimental experience on the pH optimum engineering of enzymes.Different strategies can be chosen to modify the pH activity profile of an enzyme. (i) The first is the replacement of ionizable groups that are directly involved in substrate or product binding and/or catalysis by nonionizable ones or by amino acids with different charge or pK values (i.e., "A residues" [13,23]).(ii) The second is the replacement of residues that are in direct contact with A residues by forming hydrogen bonds and/or salt bridges. Substitution of such residues may disturb the hydrogen-bonding network in the active site or alter the electronic environment of A residues (1,11,19,27). The effects on the pH activity profile caused by this type of mutations are particularly difficult to predict. (iii) The third is the alteration of...

Phytases hydrolyse phytate (myo-inositol hexakisphosphate), the principal form of phosphate stored in plant seeds to produce phosphate and lower phosphorylated myo-inositols. They are used extensively in the feed industry, and have been characterised biochemically and structurally with a number of structures in the PDB. They are divided into four distinct families: histidine acid phosphatases (HAP), β-propeller phytases, cysteine phosphatases and purple acid phosphatases and also split into three enzyme classes, the 3-, 5- and 6-phytases, depending on the position of the first phosphate in the inositol ring to be removed. We report identification, cloning, purification and 3D structures of 6-phytases from two bacteria, Hafnia alvei and Yersinia kristensenii, together with their pH optima, thermal stability, and degradation profiles for phytate. An important result is the structure of the H. alvei enzyme in complex with the substrate analogue myo-inositol hexakissulphate. In contrast to the only previous structure of a ligand-bound 6-phytase, where the 3-phosphate was unexpectedly in the catalytic site, in the H. alvei complex the expected scissile 6-phosphate (sulphate in the inhibitor) is placed in the catalytic site.

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