Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is a potent natural adjuvant, commonly used to amplify Th1 responses. Here, we report that systemic immunization using LPS generates large numbers of specific Th17 cells in murine small intestinal lamina propria. The priming of these Th17 cells required IL-23p19 production by bone marrow-derived cells. In contrast, IL-23 had no impact on Th1 differentiation or overall numbers of Ag-specific regulatory T cells. Experiments using T-cell adoptive transfers revealed a previously unappreciated mechanism for how Th17 responses are amplified in vivo: stimulation through LPS expanded precommitted Th17 cells rather than causing Th17 differentiation. Second, LPS drove Th17 cell expansion independently of IL-23, demonstrating that this cytokine is not necessary for expansion and possibly functions at an earlier stage in Th17 priming. Our data provide an impetus for using LPS-based peripheral vaccination to augment specific T-cell-mediated immunity in the gut mucosa.
Damaging inflammation arising from autoimmune pathology and septic responses results in severe cases of disease. In both instances, anti-inflammatory compounds are used to limit the excessive or deregulated cytokine responses. We used a model of robust T cell stimulation to identify new proteins involved in triggering a cytokine storm. A comparative proteomic mining approach revealed the differential mapping of Raf kinase inhibitory protein after T cell recall in vivo. Treatment with locostatin, an Raf kinase inhibitory protein inhibitor, induced T cell anergy by blocking cytokine production after Ag recall. This was associated with a reduction in Erk phosphorylation. Importantly, in vivo treatment with locostatin profoundly inhibited TNF-α production upon triggering the Ag-specific T cells. This effect was not limited to a murine model because locostatin efficiently inhibited cytokine secretion by human lymphocytes. Therefore, locostatin should be a useful therapeutic to control inflammation, sepsis, and autoimmune diseases.
We have produced three antitoxins consisting of the variable domains of camelid heavy chain-only antibodies (VHH) by expressing the genes in the chloroplast of green algae. These antitoxins accumulate as soluble proteins capable of binding and neutralizing botulinum neurotoxin. Furthermore, they accumulate at up to 5% total soluble protein, sufficient expression to easily produce these antitoxins at scale from algae. The genes for the three different antitoxins were transformed into Chlamydomonas reinhardtii chloroplasts and their products purified from algae lysates and assayed for in vitro biological activity using toxin protection assays. The produced antibody domains bind to botulinum neurotoxin serotype A (BoNT/A) with similar affinities as camelid antibodies produced in Escherichia coli, and they are similarly able to protect primary rat neurons from intoxication by BoNT/A. Furthermore, the camelid antibodies were produced in algae without the use of solubilization tags commonly employed in E. coli. These camelid antibody domains are potent antigen binding proteins and the heterodimer fusion protein containing two VHH domains was capable of neutralizing BoNT/A at near equimolar concentrations with the toxin. Intact antibody domains were detected in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract of mice treated orally with antitoxin producing microalgae. These findings support the use of orally delivered antitoxins produced in green algae as a novel treatment for botulism.
In response to environmental cues the human pathogen Staphylococcus aureus synthesizes and releases proteinaceous enterotoxins. These enterotoxins are natural etiologic entities of severe food poisoning, toxic shock syndrome, and acute diseases. Staphylococcal enterotoxins are currently listed as Category B Bioterrorism Agents by the Center for Disease Control and Prevention. They are associated with respiratory illnesses, and may contribute to exacerbation of pulmonary disease. This likely stems from the ability of Staphylococcal enterotoxins to elicit powerful episodes of T cell stimulation resulting in release of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Here, we discuss the role of the immune system and potential mechanisms of disease initiation and progression.
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