Objective. To uncover the mechanism by which hypoxia enhances cartilage matrix synthesis by human articular chondrocytes.Methods. The hypoxic response was investigated by exposing normal (nonarthritic) human articular chondrocyte cultures to 20% oxygen and 1% oxygen. Induction of the differentiated phenotype was confirmed at the gene and protein levels. In its first reported application in human articular chondrocytes, the RNA interference method was used to directly investigate the role of specific transcription factors in this process. Small interfering RNA directed against hypoxiainducible factor 1␣ (HIF-1␣), HIF-2␣, and SOX9 were delivered by lipid-based transfection of primary and passaged human articular chondrocytes. The effect of each knockdown on hypoxic induction of the chondrocyte phenotype was assessed.Results. Hypoxia enhanced matrix synthesis and SOX9 expression of human articular chondrocytes at both the gene and protein levels. Although HIF-1␣ knockdown had no effect, depletion of HIF-2␣ abolished this hypoxic induction. Thus, we provide the first evidence that HIF-2␣, but not HIF-1␣, is essential for hypoxic induction of the human articular chondrocyte phenotype. In addition, depletion of SOX9 prevented hypoxic induction of matrix genes, indicating that the latter are not direct HIF targets but are up-regulated by hypoxia via SOX9.Conclusion. Based on our data, we propose a novel mechanism whereby hypoxia promotes cartilage matrix synthesis specifically through HIF-2␣-mediated SOX9 induction of key cartilage genes. These findings have potential application for the development of cartilage repair therapies.Being avascular, cartilage has a low oxygen concentration (1,2). Chondrocytes, the unique resident cells, are therefore adapted to these hypoxic conditions, e.g., by having lower levels of oxidative phosphorylation (3) and enhanced anaerobic glycolysis (4). Furthermore, recent studies suggest that hypoxia triggers essential positive signals for the chondrocyte phenotype beyond such survival responses. Indeed, we previously reported that reduced oxygen tension increases levels of the cartilage matrix genes COL2A1 and aggrecan and the cartilage transcription factor SOX9 in cultured articular chondrocytes (5,6). Domm and colleagues also showed a positive effect of hypoxia on Col␣1(II) levels in bovine chondrocytes (7). Hypoxia has been shown to promote chondrogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells, and it was recently shown that the mouse Sox9 promoter is activated by hypoxia in mouse mesenchymal cells (8).In various cell types, hypoxic effects have been shown to be mediated by hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) transcription factors. These proteins belong to the Per-ARNT-Sim (PAS) subfamily of basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) transcription factors and consist of an ␣ subunit and a ␤ subunit (9). Under conditions of normoxia, HIF-1␣ is hydroxylated on specific proline residues, ubiquitinated through interaction with the von HippelLindau tumor suppressor protein, pVHL, and subsequently degraded b...

The chondrocyte is solely responsible for synthesis and maintenance of the resilient articular cartilage matrix that gives this load-bearing tissue its mechanical integrity. When the differentiated cell phenotype is lost, the matrix becomes compromised and cartilage function begins to fail. We have recently shown that hypoxia promotes the differentiated phenotype through hypoxia-inducible factor 2␣ (HIF-2␣)-mediated SOX9 induction of the main matrix genes. However, to date, only a few genes have been shown to be SOX9 targets, while little is known about SOX9-independent regulators. We therefore performed a detailed microarray study to address these issues. Analysis involved 35 arrays on chondrocytes obtained from seven healthy, non-elderly human cartilage samples. Genes were selected that were down-regulated with serial passage in culture (as this causes loss of the differentiated phenotype) and subsequently up-regulated in hypoxia. The importance of key findings was further probed using the technique of RNA interference on these human articular chondrocytes. Our results show that hypoxia has a broader beneficial effect on the chondrocyte phenotype than has been previously described. Of especial note, we report new hypoxia-inducible and SOX9-regulated genes, Gdf10 and Chm-I. In addition, Mig6 and InhbA were induced by hypoxia, predominantly via HIF-2␣, but were not regulated by SOX9. Therefore, hypoxia, and more specifically HIF-2␣, promotes both SOX9-dependent and -independent factors important for cartilage homeostasis. HIF-2␣ may therefore represent a new and promising therapeutic target for cartilage repair.

The human epidermis is a self-renewing epithelial tissue composed of several layers of keratinocytes. Within the epidermis there exists a complex array of cell adhesion structures, and many of the cellular events within the epidermis (differentiation, proliferation, and migration) require that these adhesion structures be remodeled. The link between cell adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation within the epidermis is well established, and in particular, there is strong evidence to link the process of terminal differentiation to integrin adhesion molecule expression and function. In this paper, we have analyzed the role of a transcriptional repressor called Slug in the regulation of adhesion molecule expression and function in epidermal keratinocytes. We report that activation of Slug, which is expressed predominantly in the basal layer of the epidermis, results in down-regulation of a number of cell adhesion molecules, including E-cadherin, and several integrins, including ␣3, ␤1, and ␤4. We demonstrate that Slug binds to the ␣3 promoter and that repression of ␣3 transcription by Slug is dependent on an E-box sequence within the promoter. This reduction in integrin expression is reflected in decreased cell adhesion to fibronectin and laminin-5. Despite the reduction in integrin expression and function, we do not observe any increase in differentiation. We do, however, find that activation of Slug results in a significant reduction in keratinocyte proliferation.The human epidermis is a self-renewing epithelial tissue composed of several layers of keratinocytes. Cells are continually lost from the tissue surface and require constant replacement by a process known as terminal differentiation. Terminal differentiation involves cells in the basal layer of the epidermis withdrawing from the cell cycle and migrating into the suprabasal differentiated layers (1). This migration process, whereby cells detach from a specialized extracellular matrix (ECM) 4 known as the basal lamina and move upwards through the epidermis, requires that cellular junctions with the underlying basal lamina (focal adhesions and hemidesmosomes) and with neighboring cells (adherens junctions and desmosomes) be regulated. There is considerable evidence that integrin adhesion molecules play key roles in regulating epidermal function. In normal epidermis, integrins (with the exception of ␣v␤8) are not expressed in the suprabasal, differentiating layers of the epidermis and are instead generally confined to the basal layer (1, 2). Keratinocyte stem cells express high levels of integrins in vivo and in vitro, and disruption of integrin-ECM interactions results in initiation of terminal differentiation in vitro (3-5).The Snail family of transcriptional repressors are conserved throughout evolution, with well documented roles in a number of vertebrate and invertebrate developmental processes. These include control of mesoderm differentiation and neurogenesis in Drosophila and left-right asymmetry in vertebrates (reviewed in Ref. 6). All Snail fami...

The transmembrane receptor ‘ROR2’ resembles members of the receptor tyrosine kinase family of signalling receptors in sequence but its' signal transduction mechanisms remain enigmatic. This problem has particular importance because mutations in ROR2 are associated with two human skeletal dysmorphology syndromes, recessive Robinow Syndrome (RS) and dominant acting Brachydactyly type B (BDB). Here we show, using a constitutive dimerisation approach, that ROR2 exhibits dimerisation-induced tyrosine kinase activity and the ROR2 C-terminal domain, which is deleted in BDB, is required for recruitment and activation of the non-receptor tyrosine kinase Src. Native ROR2 phosphorylation is induced by the ligand Wnt5a and is blocked by pharmacological inhibition of Src kinase activity. Eight sites of Src-mediated ROR2 phosphorylation have been identified by mass spectrometry. Activation via tyrosine phosphorylation of ROR2 receptor leads to its internalisation into Rab5 positive endosomes. These findings show that BDB mutant receptors are defective in kinase activation as a result of failure to recruit Src.

Tau deposition in the brain is a pathological hallmark of many neurodegenerative disorders, including Alzheimer’s disease (AD). During the course of these tauopathies, tau spreads throughout the brain via synaptically-connected pathways. Such propagation of pathology is thought to be mediated by tau species (“seeds”) containing the microtubule binding region (MTBR) composed of either three repeat (3R) or four repeat (4R) isoforms. The tau MTBR also forms the core of the neuropathological filaments identified in AD brain and other tauopathies. Multiple approaches are being taken to limit tau pathology, including immunotherapy with anti-tau antibodies. Given its key structural role within fibrils, specifically targetting the MTBR with a therapeutic antibody to inhibit tau seeding and aggregation may be a promising strategy to provide disease-modifying treatment for AD and other tauopathies. Therefore, a monoclonal antibody generating campaign was initiated with focus on the MTBR. Herein we describe the pre-clinical generation and characterisation of E2814, a humanised, high affinity, IgG1 antibody recognising the tau MTBR. E2814 and its murine precursor, 7G6, as revealed by epitope mapping, are antibodies bi-epitopic for 4R and mono-epitopic for 3R tau isoforms because they bind to sequence motif HVPGG. Functionally, both antibodies inhibited tau aggregation in vitro. They also immunodepleted a variety of MTBR-containing tau protein species. In an in vivo model of tau seeding and transmission, attenuation of deposition of sarkosyl-insoluble tau in brain could also be observed in response to antibody treatment. In AD brain, E2814 bound different types of tau filaments as shown by immunogold labelling and recognised pathological tau structures by immunohistochemical staining. Tau fragments containing HVPGG epitopes were also found to be elevated in AD brain compared to PSP or control. Taken together, the data reported here have led to E2814 being proposed for clinical development.