The present study focused on children’s evaluation of the extent to which they received the inner pains of their parents as an important mechanism of intergenerational transmission of trauma among offspring and grandchildren of Holocaust survivors (OHS and GHS, respectively). In a representative sample of 172 OHS (Sample 1) we found that this emotional burden perceived to be transmitted from both parents was related to more Holocaust-related posttraumatic symptoms. Both maternal and paternal burden were related to symptoms regardless of the other parent being a Holocaust survivor. In a convenience sample of 285 parent–child dyads (161 OHS-GHS and 124 comparison dyads; Sample 2) we found that perceived transmission of burden from both parents is positively related to OHS’s Holocaust salience—the extent to which the Holocaust is present in everyday thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. No such relationship existed among comparisons. Moreover, transmission of parental burden as perceived by OHS was positively related to Holocaust salience among GHS. That relationship was mediated by transmission of parental burden as perceived by the GHS themselves (i.e., parental burden from OHS). Our findings suggest that perceived transmission of parental burden is a significant mechanism by which transmission of trauma can linger across generations. We propose that burden commonly transmitted from parents may create generational boundary dissolution and parent–child role reversal. Such familial dynamic may in turn perpetuate secondary traumatization across several generations.

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The prevalence of intrusive memories of the Holocaust and their relationship to distress was examined among 272 child survivors in Israel. Using attachment theory as a conceptual framework, the authors also examined the effects of type of experience and loss of parents in the Holocaust, psychological resources, other life events, and sociodemographic characteristics on distress and symptomatic behavior. Eighty five percent of the participants reported suffering from intrusive memories. Structural equation modeling showed that survivors who lost one or both parents in the Holocaust suffered more distress because of more intrusive memories. These findings suggest that intrusive memories may be part of unfinished mourning processes related to the loss of parents in the Holocaust.

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