Induction of type I interferons by the bacterial secondary messengers cyclic-di-GMP (c-di-GMP) or cyclic-di-AMP (c-di-AMP) is dependent on a signaling axis involving the STING adaptor, TBK1 kinase and IRF3 transcription factor. Here we identified the helicase DEAD box polypeptide 41 (DDX41) as a pattern recognition receptor (PRR) that sensed both c-di-GMP and c-di-AMP. DDX41 specifically and directly interacted with c-di-GMP. Knockdown of DDX41 via shRNA in murine or human cells inhibited the induction of innate immune genes and resulted in defective STING, TBK1 and IRF3 activation in response to c-di-GMP or c-di-AMP. These results suggest a mechanism whereby c-di-GMP and c-di-AMP are detected by the DDX41 PRR, which complexes with STING to signal to TBK1-IRF3 and activate the interferon response.

SUMMARY STING is an essential signaling molecule for DNA and cyclic di-GMP (c-di-GMP)-mediated type I interferon (IFN) production via TANK-binding kinase 1 (TBK1) and Interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF3) pathway. It contains an N-terminal transmembrane region and a cytosolic C-terminal domain (CTD). Here, we describe crystal structures of STING CTD alone and complexed with c-di-GMP in a unique binding mode. The strictly conserved AA153-173 region was shown to be cytosolic and participated in dimerization via hydrophobic interactions. The STING CTD functions as a dimer and the dimerization was independent of post-translational modifications. Binding of c-di-GMP enhanced interaction of a shorter construct of STING CTD (residues 139-344) with TBK1. This suggests an extra TBK1 binding site, other than Ser358. This study provides a glimpse into the unique architecture of STING and sheds new light on the mechanism of c-di-GMP-mediated TBK1 signaling.

SUMMARY Stimulator of interferon genes (STING, also named MITA, MYPS or ERIS) is an intracellular DNA sensor that induces type I interferon through its interaction with TANK-binding kinase 1 (TBK1). Here we found that the nucleotide-binding, leucine-rich repeat containing protein, NLRC3, reduced STING-dependent innate immune activation in response to cytosolic DNA, cyclic di-GMP (c-di-GMP) and DNA viruses. NLRC3 associated with both STING and TBK1, and impeded STING-TBK1 interaction and downstream type I interferon production. Using purified recombinant proteins NLRC3 was found to interact directly with STING. Furthermore, NLRC3 prevented proper trafficking of STING to perinuclear and punctated region, known to be important for its activation. In animals, herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1)-infected Nlrc3−/− mice exhibited enhanced innate immunity, reduced morbidity and viral load. This demonstrates the intersection of two key pathways of innate immune regulation, NLR and STING, to fine tune host response to intracellular DNA, DNA virus and c-di-GMP