SummaryType 1 diabetes (T1D) is an autoimmune disease in which insulin-producing beta cells are destroyed in the islets of Langerhans. One of its main pathological manifestations is the hyper-expression of Major Histocompatibility Complex I (MHC-I) by beta cells, which was first described over 3 decades ago yet its cause remains unknown. It might not only be a sign of beta cell dysfunction but could also render the cells susceptible to autoimmune destruction; for example, by islet-infiltrating CD8 T cells. In this report, we studied pancreas tissue from a 22-year-old non-diabetic male cadaveric organ donor who had been at high risk of developing T1D, in which autoantibodies against GAD and IA-2 were detected. Pancreas sections were analyzed for signs of inflammation. Multiple insulin-containing islets were identified, which hyper-expressed MHC-I. However, islet density and MHC-I expression exhibited a highly lobular and heterogeneous pattern even within the same section. In addition, many islets with high expression of MHC-I presented higher levels of CD8 T cell infiltration than normal islets. These results demonstrate the heterogeneity of human pathology that occurs early during the pre-diabetic, autoantibody positive phase, and should contribute to the understanding of human T1D. (J Histochem Cytochem 63:626-636, 2015)
Somatic hypermutation (SHM) and class-switch recombination (CSR) of the Ig gene require both the transcription of the locus and the expression of activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID). During CSR, AID decreases the amount of topoisomerase I (Top1); this decrease alters the DNA structure and induces cleavage in the S region. Similarly, Top1 is involved in transcription-associated mutation at dinucleotide repeats in yeast and in triplet-repeat contraction in mammals. Here, we report that the AID-induced decrease in Top1 is critical for SHM. Top1 knockdown or haploinsufficiency enhanced SHM, whereas Top1 overexpression down-regulated it. A specific Top1 inhibitor, camptothecin, suppressed SHM, indicating that Top1's activity is required for DNA cleavage. Nonetheless, suppression of transcription abolished SHM, even in cells with Top1 knockdown, suggesting that transcription is critical. These results are consistent with a model proposed for CSR and triplet instability, in which transcription-induced non-B structure formation is enhanced by Top1 reduction and provides the target for irreversible cleavage by Top1. We speculate that the mechanism for transcription-coupled genome instability was adopted to generate immune diversity when AID evolved.DNA cleavage | non-B DNA structure T he Ig locus undergoes two types of genetic alteration-somatic hypermutation (SHM) and class switch recombination (CSR)-to generate antibody memory against given antigens when B lymphocytes are stimulated by pathogens. Both SHM and CSR depend on the expression of activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID) (1, 2) and transcription of the target Ig loci (3-6).AID is responsible for introducing DNA cleavage in the variable (V) region and in the switch (S) region of the Ig locus for initiating SHM and CSR, respectively (7-10). AID's DNA cleavage activity is associated with its amino-terminal region because mutations at the carboxyl (C) terminus abolish CSR without affecting SHM and DNA cleavage in the S region (7,11,12). It is likely that the Cterminal region of AID is required for the recombination of the cleaved S region ends. Thus, AID carries out two separate functions with a single catalytic center located in the middle of the protein. Under normal conditions, AID is expressed only in activated B cells and introduces genetic alterations in the Ig gene. However, Ig genes are not the only targets of AID (13,14). Indeed, AID is involved in Ig-c-myc chromosomal translocation, causing malignant tumors (15, 16). More recently, certain pathogens were reported to induce the activation of AID, which may cause tumorigenesis over the long term (17)(18)(19)(20).Using an artificial construct to monitor CSR and SHM, positive correlations between transcription levels and the efficiencies of CSR and SHM have been demonstrated (21,22). Transcriptionassociated genomic instability has been extensively studied in a number of systems (23). One finding of these studies is that the frequency of mutations, including base replacements and deletions, caused...
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