The world's future energy supply will include intermittent renewable sources, such as solar and wind power. To guarantee reliability of supply, fast‐reacting, dispatchable and renewable back‐up power plants are required. One promising alternative is parked and grid‐connected hydrogen‐powered fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) in “Vehicle‐to‐Grid“ systems. We modified a commercial FCEV and installed an external 9.5 kW three‐phase alternating current (AC) grid connection. Our experimental verification of this set‐up shows that FCEVs can be used for mobility as well as generating power when parked. Our experimental results demonstrate that present‐day grid‐connected FCEVs can respond to high load gradients in the range of –760 % s−1 to + 730 % s−1, due to the parallel connection of the high voltage battery and the fuel cell stack. Virtual power plants composed of multiple grid‐connected FCEVs could perform higher power gradients than existing fast‐reacting thermal power plants with typical power gradients of 1.67 % s−1. Hydrogen consumption in 9.5 kW AC grid‐connected mode was 0.55 kg h−1, resulting in a Tank‐To‐Grid‐AC efficiency of 43% on a higher heating value basis (51 % on a lower heating value basis). Direct current to alternating current efficiency was 95 %.
Palabras clave: carbón, contaminación atmosférica, contaminantes atmosféricos tóxicos, factores de emisión, generación de electricidad RESUMENReducir las emisiones de mercurio en la atmósfera es uno de los acuerdos tomados en la Convención Internacional de Minamata, llevada a cabo en Kumamoto Japón en 2013. Ante este compromiso se estableció como objetivo principal de este estudio la estimación de la variación temporal mensual de las emisiones de mercurio por unidad de generación para cada una de las tres carboeléctricas en México, durante los años 2012 y 2013. Las emisiones se estimaron con base en el procedimiento de la Agencia de Protección Ambiental de los EUA (USEPA), a partir del contenido de mercurio en el carbón y aplicando factores de emisión, conociendo el consumo real del combustible. Los resultados muestran que la mayor emisión se presentó en la carboeléctrica localizada en Petacalco, Guerrero, siendo la unidad de generación número siete la que tuvo una mayor emisión. Además, en todos los casos fue durante el verano cuando una mayor cantidad de mercurio fue emitido debido a un mayor requerimiento de energía eléctrica. Este estudio es importante como herramienta preliminar en la toma de decisiones en el proceso de prevención, minimización y control de contaminantes tóxicos, que se alinea con los acuerdos internacionales para la protección del ambiente y de la sociedad.Key words: coal, atmospheric pollution, toxic air pollutants, emission factors, electricity generation ABSTRACTTo reduce mercury emissions in the atmosphere is one of the agreements reached at the International Convention of Minamata, held in Kumamoto, Japan in 2013. In view of this commitment the main objective of this study was estimating monthly temporal variation of mercury emissions per generation unit for each of the three coal-fired power plants in Mexico during the years 2012 and 2013. Emissions were estimated based on the method of the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), from mercury content in coal and emission factors, knowing the actual fuel consumption. The results show that the greatest emission was presented in the coal-fired power plant located in Petacalco, Guerrero, with the generating unit number seven presenting the major emissions. Furthermore, in all Rev. Int.
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