DNA offers excellent programming properties for the generation of nanometer-scaled polyhedral structures with a broad variety of potential applications. Translation to biomedical applications requires improving stability in biological fluids, efficient and selective cell binding, and/or internalization of the assembled DNA nanostructures. Here, we report an investigation on the selective mechanism of cellular uptake of pristine DNA nanocages in cells expressing the receptor "oxidized low-density lipoprotein receptor-1" (LOX-1), a scavenger receptor associated with cardiovascular diseases and, more recently, identified as a tumor marker. For this purpose a truncated octahedral DNA nanocage functionalized with a single biotin molecule, which allows DNA cage detection through the biotin-streptavidin assays, was constructed. The results indicate that DNA nanocages are stable in biological fluids, including human serum, and are selectively bound and very efficiently internalized in vesicles only in LOX-1-expressing cells. The amount of internalized cages is 30 times higher in LOX-1-expressing cells than in normal fibroblasts, indicating that the receptor-mediated uptake of pristine DNA nanocages can be pursued for a selective cellular internalization. These results open the route for a therapeutic use of pristine DNA cages targeting LOX-1-overexpressing tumor cells.
Selective targeting is a crucial property of nanocarriers used for drug delivery in cancer therapy. We generated biotinylated octahedral DNA nanocages functionalized with folic acid through bio-orthogonal conjugation chemistry. Molecular modelling indicated that a distance of about 2.5 nm between folic acid and DNA nanocage avoids steric hindrance with the folate receptor. HeLa cells, a folate receptor positive tumour cell line, internalize folate-DNA nanocages with efficiency greater than 40 times compared to cells not expressing the folate receptors. Functionalized DNA nanocages are highly stable, not cytotoxic and can be efficiently loaded with the chemotherapeutic agent doxorubicin. After entry into cells, doxorubicin-loaded nanoparticles are confined in vesicular structures, indicating that DNA nanocages traffic through the endocytic pathway. Doxorubicin release from loaded DNA cages, facilitated by low pH of endocytic vesicles, induces toxic pathways that, besides selectively killing folate receptor-positive cancer cells, leads to cage degradation avoiding nanoparticles accumulation inside cells.
DNA nanostructures of different sizes and forms are internalized in cells through the LOX-1 receptor with different intracellular fate and lifetime.
DNA has been used to build nanostructures with potential biomedical applications. However, their use is limited by the lack of information on the mechanism of entry, intracellular fate and degradation rate of nanostructures inside cells. We generated octahedral DNA nanocages functionalized with folic acid and investigated the cellular uptake mediated by two distinctive internalization pathways, using two cellular systems expressing the oxidized low-density lipoprotein receptor-1 (LOX-1) and the α isoform of the folate receptor (αFR), respectively. Here, we report that DNA nanocages are very efficiently and selectively internalized by both receptors with an efficiency at least 30 times higher than that observed in cells not expressing the receptors. When internalized by LOX-1, nanocages traffic to lysosomes within 4 hours and are rapidly degraded. When the uptake is mediated by αFR, DNA nanocages are highly stable (>48 hours) and accumulate inside cells in a time-dependent way. These data demonstrate that the selection of the cellular receptor is crucial for targeting specific sub-cellular compartments and for modulating the DNA nanocage intracellular half-life, indicating that vitamin-mediated uptake may constitute a protected pathway for intracellular drug delivery.
The lectin-like oxidized low-density lipoprotein receptor-1 (LOX-1) is a scavenger receptor responsible for ox-LDL recognition, binding and internalization, which is up-regulated during atherogenesis. Its activation triggers endothelium dysfunction and induces inflammation. A soluble form of LOX-1 has been identified in the human blood and its presence considered a biomarker of cardiovascular diseases. We recently showed that cholesterol-lowering drugs inhibit ox-LDL binding and internalization, rescuing the ox-LDL induced apoptotic phenotype in primary endothelial cells. Here we have investigated the molecular bases of human LOX-1 shedding by metalloproteinases and the role of cell membrane cholesterol on the regulation of this event by modulating its level with MβCD and statins. We report that membrane cholesterol affects the release of different forms of LOX-1 in cells transiently and stably expressing human LOX-1 and in a human endothelial cell line (EA.hy926). In particular, our data show that i) cholesterol depletion triggers the release of LOX-1 in exosomes as a full-length transmembrane isoform and as a truncated ectodomain soluble fragment (sLOX-1); ii) endothelial cells secrete a soluble metalloproteinase which induces LOX-1 ectodomain shedding and iii) long term statins treatment enhances sLOX-1 proteolytic shedding.
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