This study presents a review of how the end-of-life (EOL) stage is modelled in life cycle assessment (LCA) studies of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). Twenty-five peer-reviewed journal and conference papers that consider the whole LIB life cycle and describe their EOL modelling approach sufficiently were analyzed. The studies were categorized based on two archetypal EOL modelling approaches in LCA: The cutoff (no material recovery, possibly secondary material input) and EOL recycling (material recovery, only primary material input) approaches. It was found that 19 of the studies followed the EOL recycling approach and 6 the cutoff approach. In addition, almost a third of the studies deviated from the expected setup of the two methods by including both material recovery and secondary material input. Such hybrid approaches may lead to double counting of recycling benefits by both including secondary input (as in the cutoff approach) and substituting primary materials (as in the EOL recycling approach). If the archetypal EOL modelling approaches are not followed, it is imperative that the modelling choices are well-documented and motivated to avoid double counting that leads to over- or underestimations of the environmental impacts of LIBs. Also, 21 studies model hydrometallurgical treatment, and 17 completely omit waste collection.

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Weight reduction is commonly adopted in vehicle design as a means for energy and emissions savings. However, selection of lightweight materials is often focused on performance characteristics, which may lead to sub optimizations of life cycle environmental impact. Therefore systematic material selection processes are needed that integrate weight optimization and environmental life cycle assessment. This paper presents such an approach and its application to design of an automotive component. Materials from the metal, hybrid and polymer families were assessed, along with a novel self-reinforced composite material that is a potential lightweight alternative to nonrecyclable composites. It was shown that materials offering the highest weight saving potential offer limited life cycle environmental benefit due to energy demanding manufacturing. Selection of the preferable alternative is not a straightforward process since results may be sensitive to critical but uncertain aspects of the life cycle. Such aspects need to be evaluated to determine the actual benefits of lightweight design and to base material selection on more informed choices.

PostprintThis is the accepted version of a paper published in Journal of Cleaner Production. This paper has been peer-reviewed but does not include the final publisher proof-corrections or journal pagination. Citation for the original published paper (version of record):Laurenti, R., Lazarevic, D., Poulikidou, S., Montrucchio, V., Bistagnino, L. et al. (2014) Group Model-Building to identify potential sources of environmental impacts outside the scope of LCA studies. Author's Post-print. Please cite as: Laurenti, R., Lazarevic, D., Poulikidou, S., Montrucchio, V., Bistagnino, L., & Frostell, B. (2014). Group Model-Building to identify potential sources of environmental impacts outside the scope of LCA studies. Journal of Cleaner Production, 72, 96-109. doi:10.1016Production, 72, 96-109. doi:10. /j.jclepro.2014 technique to make explicit, variables which may not be typically considered in LCA studies, but may have 6 significant influence upon environmental impacts of a product or service through cause-effect links and 7 feedback loops. Household washing machine and conventional passenger vehicle are chosen as cases of 8 product system to illustrate the utility of the GMB method and CLD technique. A literature review on 9 Journal of Cleaner ProductionLCAs concerning the two product systems is performed to investigate what are the commonly used 10 functional unit, life cycle stages and system boundaries. The LCA studies contained variables mainly 11 pertaining to physical structure, whilst GMBs identified cause-effect relations and feedback loops 12 between variables pertaining to physical and behavioural structure. It is necessary to move beyond slogans 13 about interconnectedness, need for multidisciplinary research, etc. Consequently, specific methodologies 14 that consider a more comprehensive/diverse set of parameters must be explored by the LCA community. 15 GMB and CLD can serve as a basis for (i) delimitating appropriated system boundaries for LCA and (ii) 16 identifying variables/areas to be included in sensitivity and scenario analysis. Sensitivity and scenario 17 analysis examine the influence that those variables/areas have on the environmental impacts of the 18 product and describe both different contexts and profiles of users. GMB and CLD have the potential to 19 bridge the divide between quantitative and qualitative variables, for more robust understanding of the 20 causes and mechanisms of environmental impacts and improving conclusions and recommendations in 21 LCA. 22

Vertical farming has emerged in urban areas as an approach to provide more resilient food production. However, a substantial share of the material requirements come from outside their urban environments. With urban environments producing a large share of residual and waste streams, extensive protential exists to employ these material and energy streams as inputs in urban farming systems to promote more circular economy approaches. The aim of this article is to assess the environmental performance of employing residual material flows for vertical hydroponic farming in urban environments in order to support more circular, resilient, and sustainable urban food supply. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is used to assess replacing conventional growing media and fertilizers with urban residual streams. Paper, compost, and brewers’ spent grains were assessed for replacements to conventional gardening soil employed in the studied system. Biogas digestate was also assessed as a replacement for conventional fertilizers used in the recirculating water bath. The results suggest that large environmental performance benefits are illustrated when conventional growing media is replaced. Although not as significant, employing fertilizers from residual urban streams also leads to large potential benefits, suggesting the two residual streams have the potential for more circular hydroponic systems.