Summary Dysregulated Th17 cell responses underlie multiple inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, including autoimmune uveitis and its animal model, EAU. However, clinical trials targeting IL-17A in uveitis were not successful. Here, we report that Th17 cells were regulated by their own signature cytokine, IL-17A. Loss of IL-17A in autopathogenic Th17 cells did not reduce their pathogenicity and instead elevated their expression of the Th17 cytokines GM-CSF and IL-17F. Mechanistic in vitro studies revealed a Th17 cell-intrinsic autocrine loop triggered by binding of IL-17A to its receptor, leading to activation of the transcription factor NF-κB and induction of IL-24, which repressed the Th17 cytokine program. In vivo , IL-24 treatment ameliorated Th17-induced EAU, whereas silencing of IL-24 in Th17 cells enhanced disease. This regulatory pathway also operated in human Th17 cells. Thus, IL-17A limits pathogenicity of Th17 cells by inducing IL-24. These findings may explain the disappointing therapeutic effect of targeting IL-17A in uveitis.

BackgroundThe inflammatory myeloid cell activation is one of the hallmarks of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), yet the in vivo role of the inflammatory myeloid cell activation in EAE has not been clearly resolved. It is well-known that IKK/NF-κB is a key signaling pathway that regulates inflammatory myeloid activation.MethodsWe investigated the in vivo role of inflammatory myeloid cell activation in myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG) peptides-induced EAE using myeloid cell type-specific ikkβ gene conditional knockout-mice (LysM-Cre/IkkβF/F).ResultsIn our study, LysM-Cre/IkkβF/F mice had alleviated clinical signs of EAE corresponding to the decreased spinal demyelination, microglial activation, and immune cell infiltration in the spinal cord, compared to the wild-type mice (WT, IkkβF/F). Myeloid ikkβ gene deletion significantly reduced the percentage of CD4+/IFN-γ+ (Th1) and CD4+/IL-17+ (Th17) cells but increased the percentages of CD4+/CD25+/Foxp3+ (Treg) cells in the spinal cord and lymph nodes, corresponding to the altered mRNA expression of IFN-γ, IL-17, IL-23, and Foxp3 in the spinal cords of LysM-Cre/IkkβF/F EAE mice. Also, the beneficial effect of myeloid IKKβ deletion in EAE corresponded to the decreased permeability of the blood brain barrier (BBB).ConclusionsOur findings strongly suggest that IKK/NF-kB-induced myeloid cell activation exacerbates EAE by activating Th1 and Th17 responses and compromising the BBB. The development of NF-κB inhibitory agents with high efficacy through specific targeting of IKKβ in myeloid cells might be of therapeutic potential in MS and other autoimmune disorders.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13024-016-0116-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Background:The role of LCN2 in EAE is not clear. Results: LCN2 expression increased in EAE. Lcn2 deficiency attenuated EAE symptoms and pathology. LCN2 enhanced glial expression of inflammatory mediators and peripheral encephalitogenic T cell activation in vitro and in vivo. Conclusion: Both central and peripheral LCN2 contributed to EAE development. Significance: LCN2 can be targeted for treatment of multiple sclerosis.Lipocalin-2 (LCN2) plays an important role in cellular processes as diverse as cell growth, migration/invasion, differentiation, and death/survival. Furthermore, recent studies indicate that LCN2 expression and secretion by glial cells are induced by inflammatory stimuli in the central nervous system. The present study was undertaken to examine the regulation of LCN2 expression in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) and to determine the role of LCN2 in the disease process. LCN2 expression was found to be strongly increased in spinal cord and secondary lymphoid tissues after EAE induction. In spinal cords astrocytes and microglia were the major cell types expressing LCN2 and its receptor 24p3R, respectively, whereas in spleens, LCN2 and 24p3R were highly expressed in neutrophils and dendritic cells, respectively. Furthermore, disease severity, inflammatory infiltration, demyelination, glial activation, the expression of inflammatory mediators, and the proliferation of MOG-specific T cells were significantly attenuated in Lcn2-deficient mice as compared with wild-type animals.Myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein-specific T cells in culture exhibited an increased expression of Il17a, Ifng, Rorc, and Tbet after treatment with recombinant LCN2 protein. Moreover, LCN2-treated glial cells expressed higher levels of proinflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and MMP-9. Adoptive transfer and recombinant LCN2 protein injection experiments suggested that LCN2 expression in spinal cord and peripheral immune organs contributes to EAE development. Taken together, these results imply LCN2 is a critical mediator of autoimmune inflammation and disease development in EAE and suggest that LCN2 be regarded a potential therapeutic target in multiple sclerosis. Multiple sclerosis (MS)5 is a chronic inflammatory disease of the central nervous system (CNS) characterized by immune cell infiltration and demyelination of the brain and spinal cord (1-3). In MS, inflammatory reactions involve complex interactions between infiltrating immune cells and resident CNS cells that lead to inflammatory lesion formation, demyelination, oligodendrocyte, and axonal damage (4, 5). Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) is an animal model widely used to study neuroimmunologic responses in MS. The key players in MS, which include T cells (6 -8), B cells (9 -11), mast cells (12, 13), macrophages (14) Lipocalin 2 (LCN2), also termed 24p3 (21), uterocalin (22), and neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) (23), is a member of the lipocalin family, a group of small extracellular proteins with great functional diversit...

Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) is an inflammatory disease in the murine central nervous system (CNS) and recapitulates the clinical and pathological features of human multiple sclerosis (MS). Glutamate carboxipeptidase II (GCPII), an enzyme expressed exclusively on astrocytes, is known to affect the disease progression of various neurological disorders by producing glutamate. Despite several findings indicating possible link between glutamate and MS/EAE, however, the involvement of astrocyte or GCPII on glutamate excitotoxicity has not received much attention in MS/ EAE. When we examined GCPII expression during EAE progression in this study, we observed significantly elevated GCPII expression in peak stage of disease localized mainly in astrocytes. Intrigued by these results, we tried a potent GCPII inhibitor, 2-phosphonomethyl pentanedioic acid (2-PMPA), on EAE mice and noticed markedly attenuated EAE clinical signs along with significantly inhibited infiltration of inflammatory cells into CNS. Furthermore, 2-PMPA dampened the function of Th1 cell lineage and downregulated mGluR1 expression in both periphery and CNS contributing to glutamate-mediated immune regulation. Our observations identify a sequence of events triggering EAE through GCPII overexpression, which may offer a novel therapeutic approach to the treatment of MS.Abbreviations 2-PMPA, 2-phosphonomethyl pentanedioic acid; CNPase, 2 0 ,3 0 -cyclic-nucleotide 3 0 -phosphodiesterase; CNS, central nervous system; Con A, concanavalin A; CPM, count per minute; DAB, 3,3 0 -diaminbenzidine tetrachloride; DAPI, 4 0 ,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole dihydrochloride; EAE, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis; FBS, fetal bovine serum; FITC, fluorescein isothiocyanate; GCPII, glutamate carboxipeptidase

Regulatory B cells (Breg cells) that secrete IL-10 or IL-35 (i35-Breg) play key roles in regulating immunity in tumor microenvironment or during autoimmune and infectious diseases. Thus, loss of Breg function is implicated in development of autoimmune diseases while aberrant elevation of Breg prevents sterilizing immunity, exacerbates infectious diseases, and promotes cancer metastasis. Breg cells identified thus far are largely antigen-specific and derive mainly from B2-lymphocyte lineage. Here, we describe an innate-like IL-27–producing natural regulatory B-1a cell (i27-Breg) in peritoneal cavity and human umbilical cord blood. i27-Bregs accumulate in CNS and lymphoid tissues during neuroinflammation and confers protection against CNS autoimmune disease. i27-Breg immunotherapy ameliorated encephalomyelitis and uveitis through up-regulation of inhibitory receptors (Lag3, PD-1), suppression of Th17/Th1 responses, and propagating inhibitory signals that convert conventional B cells to regulatory lymphocytes that secrete IL-10 and/or IL-35 in eye, brain, or spinal cord. Furthermore, i27-Breg proliferates in vivo and sustains IL-27 secretion in CNS and lymphoid tissues, a therapeutic advantage over administering biologics (IL-10, IL-35) that are rapidly cleared in vivo. Mutant mice lacking irf4 in B cells exhibit exaggerated increase of i27-Bregs with few i35-Bregs, while mice with loss of irf8 in B cells have abundance of i35-Bregs but defective in generating i27-Bregs, identifying IRF8/BATF and IRF4/BATF axis in skewing B cell differentiation toward i27-Breg and i35-Breg developmental programs, respectively. Consistent with its developmental origin, disease suppression by innate i27-Bregs is neither antigen-specific nor disease-specific, suggesting that i27-Breg would be effective immunotherapy for a wide spectrum of autoimmune diseases.

AS101 is an organotellurium compound with multifaceted immunoregulatory properties that is remarkable for its lack of toxicity. We tested the therapeutic effect of AS101 in experimental autoimmune uveitis (EAU), a model for human autoimmune uveitis. Unexpectedly, treatment with AS101 elicited Treg generation in vivo in otherwise unmanipulated mice. Mice immunized for EAU with the retinal antigen IRBP and treated with AS101 developed attenuated disease, as did AS101-treated recipients of retina-specific T cells activated in vitro. In both settings, eyeinfiltrating effector T cells were decreased, whereas regulatory T (Treg) cells in the spleen were increased. Mechanistic studies in vitro revealed that AS101 restricted polarization of retinaspecific T cells towards Th1 or Th17 lineage by repressing activation of their respective lineagespecific transcription factors and downstream signals. Retina-specific T cells polarized in vitro towards Th1 or Th17 in the presence of AS101 had impaired ability to induce EAU in naïve recipients. Finally, AS101 promoted differentiation of retina-specific T cells to Tregs in vitro independently of TGF-β. We conclude that AS101 modulates autoimmune T cells by inhibiting acquisition and expression of effector function and by promoting Treg generation, and suggest that AS101 could be useful as a therapeutic approach for autoimmune uveitis.

Context: Beetroot [Beta vulgaris Linné (Chenopodiaceae)], a vegetable usually consumed as a food or a medicinal plant in Europe, has been reported to have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Since the lymphohematopoietic system is the most sensitive tissue to ionizing radiation, protecting it from radiation damage is one of the best ways to decrease detrimental effects from radiation exposure. Objective: In this study, we evaluated the radio-protective effects of beetroot in hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) and progenitor cells. Materials and methods: Beetroot extract was administered at a dose of 400 mg/mouse per os (p.o.) three times into C57BL/6 mice and, at day 10 after γ-ray irradiation, diverse molecular presentations were measured and compared against non-irradiated and irradiated mice with PBS treatments. Survival of beetroot-fed and unfed irradiated animal was also compared. Results: Beetroot not only stimulated cell proliferation, but also minimized DNA damage of splenocytes. Beetroot also repopulated S-phase cells and increased Ki-67 or c-Kit positive cells in bone marrow. Moreover, beetroot-treated mice showed notable boosting of differentiation of HSCs into burst-forming units-erythroid along with increased production of IL-3. Also, beetroot-treated mice displayed enhancement in the level of hematocrit and hemoglobin as well as the number of red blood cell in peripheral blood. Beetroot diet improved survival rate of lethally exposed mice with a dose reduction factor (DRF) of 1.1. Discussion and conclusion: These results suggest that beetroot has the potency to preserve bone marrow integrity and stimulate the differentiation of HSCs against ionizing radiation.

Bearing pathologic and clinical similarities to human multiple sclerosis (MS), experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) is used as a murine model to test potential therapeutic agents for MS. Recently, we reported the protective effects of an acidic polysaccharide of Panax ginseng (APG) in C57BL/6 strain-dependent EAE, a model of primary progressive MS. In this study, we extend our previous findings on the therapeutic capacity of APG in relapsing-remitting EAE (rr-EAE), the animal model to closely mimic recurrent inflammatory demyelination lesions of relapsing-remitting MS. Treatments with APG led to a significant reduction of clinical symptoms and the relapse rate of EAE than vehicle treatments. Consistent with this, histological examination revealed that APG markedly modulated the infiltration of CD4[Formula: see text] T cells and CD11b[Formula: see text] macrophages into the spinal cord and the APG-treated CNS was devoid of demyelination and axonal damages. In addition, APG decreased the proliferation of peripheral PLP-reactive T cells and the production of pro-inflammatory factors such as IFN-[Formula: see text], IL-17 and TNF-[Formula: see text]. The fact that APG can induce clinically beneficial effects to distinct types of EAE furthers our understanding on the basis of its immunosuppression in EAE and, possibly, in MS. Our results suggest that APG may serve as a new therapeutic agent for MS as well as other human autoimmune diseases, and warrants continued evaluation for its translation into therapeutic application.