Women's empowerment is a major concern in the developing world and is emerging as an important indicator of the development of a society as well as the status of women. In this paper, we study empowerment of women in families which have experienced the migration of their male members. A direct relationship between migration of a husband and a woman's empowerment is difficult to establish. Nevertheless, it is worthwhile examining whether women have experienced any change in their freedoms in terms of decision making, mobility and restrictions. Our measure of women's empowerment is based mainly on three indicators, viz. their decision-making powers, restrictions placed on them and their mobility. Analysis of these three indices of women's empowerment has been achieved through multinomial logistic regression models on data from India's 2005-2006 National Family Health Survey-3 (NFHS-3). The findings of this study show that out-migration of men has not had a significant impact on the emancipation of women. The common factors which increase the decision-making power and mobility of women and lessen the social restrictions placed on them are age, their educational attainment, marital duration, occupation and residence in urban areas.

Purpose – The aim of this paper is to analyse the existing models of spelling development. Researchers who have observed children’s writing have not been able to reach a consensus over the development of spelling in children’s initial schooling years. Differing opinions broadly categorise spelling into linear development and non-linear development models. This paper investigates questions like, whether or not spelling stages exist, if the stages exist do they exist distinctly, and can we trace the elements of every single stage throughout a child’s spelling development. Design/Methodology/Approach – A systematic identification of peer-reviewed studies was done for inclusion in this study. Both quantitative and qualitative studies dealing with the theme of spelling development were first scrutinized and then selectively included. From the beginning, it was maintained that the included studies must represent a diversity in deciphering the nature of the spelling development. In order to fulfil this objective, the range of the included studies varies between the pioneer studies of the spelling development from the 1970s till 2017.  Findings – The author’s search yields that there is a contradiction between both linear and non-linear models. The linear model asserts that spelling competency develops through hierarchical and sequential stages that move towards phonological to orthographical and morphological writing. By indicating the inadequacy of linear model, the non-linear model suggests that the ability to spell develops through the composite interaction of phonology, morphology, and orthography. By asserting the statistical learning theory, the non-linear model claims that this composite interaction develops non-linearly by rich exposure to printed language materials and writings. Additionally, the nature of the writing system and the degree of phonological and orthographic correspondence also shape the spelling process of a language. Research limitations – The limitation of this study is that it is based on the Latin scripts exclusively. Therefore, the spelling development process concerning the scripts other than Latin is untouched. Originality/Value – This study offers a possibility for integrating the existing models in order to understand the process of spelling development and the aspects of the phonological, orthographic, and morphological awareness of literacy.

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