Inward rectifier K+ channels, which modulate electrical activity in many cell types, are regulated by protein kinases, guanine-nucleotide-binding proteins (G proteins) and probably actin cytoskeleton. Generation of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) by ATP-dependent lipid kinases is known to activate inward rectifier K+ channels in cardiac membrane patches. Here we report that several cloned inward rectifier K+ channels directly bind PIP2, and that this binding correlates with channel activity. Application of ATP or PIP2 liposomes activates the cloned channels. Stabilized by lipid phosphatase inhibitors, PIP2 antibodies potently inhibit each channel with a unique rate (GIRK1/4 approximately GIRK2 >> IRK1 approximately ROMK. Consistent with the faster dissociation of PIP2 from the GIRK channels, the carboxy terminus of GIRK1 binds 3H-PIP2 liposomes more weakly than does that of IRK1 or ROMK1. Mutation of a conserved arginine to glutamine at position 188 reduces the ability of ROMK1 to bind PIP2 and increases its sensitivity to inhibition by PIP2 antibodies. Interactions between GIRK channels and PIP2 are modulated by the betagamma subunits of the G protein (Gbetagamma). When GIRK1/4 channels are allowed to run down completely, they are not activated by addition of Gbetagamma alone, but application of PIP2 activates them in minutes without Gbetagamma and in just seconds with Gbetagamma. Finally, coexpression of Gbetagamma with GIRK channels slows the inhibition of K+ currents by PIP2 antibodies by more than 10-fold. Thus Gbetagamma activates GIRK channels by stabilizing interactions between PIP2 and the K+ channel.

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Phosphatidylinositol 4,5 bisphosphate (PIP2) is widely implicated in cytoskeleton regulation, but the mechanisms by which PIP2 effect cytoskeletal changes are not defined. We used recombinant adenovirus to infect CV1 cells with the mouse type I phosphatidylinositol phosphate 5-kinase α (PIP5KI), and identified the players that modulate the cytoskeleton in response to PIP2 signaling. PIP5KI overexpression increased PIP2 and reduced phosphatidylinositol 4 phosphate (PI4P) levels. It promoted robust stress-fiber formation in CV1 cells and blocked PDGF-induced membrane ruffling and nucleated actin assembly. Y-27632, a Rho-dependent serine/threonine protein kinase (ROCK) inhibitor, blocked stress-fiber formation and inhibited PIP2 and PI4P synthesis in cells. However, Y-27632 had no effect on PIP2 synthesis in lysates, although it inhibited PI4P synthesis. Thus, ROCK may regulate PIP2 synthesis by controlling PI4P availability. PIP5KI overexpression decreased gelsolin, profilin, and capping protein binding to actin and increased that of ezrin. These changes can potentially account for the increased stress fiber and nonruffling phenotype. Our results establish the physiological role of PIP2 in cytoskeletal regulation, clarify the relation between Rho, ROCK, and PIP2 in the activation of stress-fiber formation, and identify the key players that modulate the actin cytoskeleton in response to PIP2.

Cardiac Na + -Ca 2+ exchange (NCX1) inactivates in excised membrane patches when cytoplasmic Ca 2+ is removed or cytoplasmic Na + is increased. Exogenous phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate (PIP 2 ) can ablate both inactivation mechanisms, while it has no effect on inward exchange current in the absence of cytoplasmic Na + . To probe PIP 2 effects in intact cells, we manipulated PIP 2 metabolism by several means. First, we used cell lines with M1 (muscarinic) receptors that couple to phospholipase C's (PLCs). As expected, outward NCX1 current (i.e. Ca 2+ influx) can be strongly inhibited when M1 agonists induce PIP 2 depletion. However, inward currents (i.e. Ca 2+ extrusion) without cytoplasmic Na + can be increased markedly in parallel with an increase of cell capacitance (i.e. membrane area). Similar effects are incurred by cytoplasmic perfusion of GTPγS or the actin cytoskeleton disruptor latrunculin, even in the presence of non-hydrolysable ATP (AMP-PNP). Thus, G-protein signalling may increase NCX1 currents by destabilizing membrane cytoskeleton-PIP 2 interactions. Second, to increase PIP 2 we directly perfused PIP 2 into cells. Outward NCX1 currents increase as expected. But over minutes currents decline substantially, and cell capacitance usually decreases in parallel. Third, using BHK cells with stable NCX1 expression, we increased PIP 2 by transient expression of a phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate-5-kinase (hPIP5KIβ) and a PI4-kinase (PI4KIIα). NCX1 current densities were decreased by > 80 and 40%, respectively. Fourth, we generated transgenic mice with 10-fold cardiac-specific overexpression of PI4KIIα. This wortmannin-insensitive PI4KIIα was chosen because basal cardiac phosphoinositides are nearly insensitive to wortmannin, and surface membrane PI4-kinase activity, defined functionally in excised patches, is not blocked by wortmannin. Both phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate (PIP) and PIP 2 were increased significantly, while NCX1 current densities were decreased by 78% with no loss of NCX1 expression. Most mice developed cardiac hypertrophy, and immunohistochemical analysis suggests that NCX1 is redistributed away from the outer sarcolemma. Cholera toxin uptake was increased 3-fold, suggesting that clathrin-independent endocytosis is enhanced. We conclude that direct effects of PIP 2 to activate NCX1 can be strongly modulated by opposing mechanisms in intact cells that probably involve membrane cytoskeleton remodelling and membrane trafficking.

The sarcolemmal Na/Ca exchanger undergoes an inactivation process in which exchange activity decays over several seconds following activation by the application of Na to the intracellular surface of the protein. Inactivation is eliminated by an increase in membrane phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP(2)). Inactivation is also strongly affected by mutations to a basic 20-amino acid segment of the exchanger known as the endogenous XIP region. The hypothesis that PIP(2) directly interacts with the XIP region of the exchanger was tested. First, we investigated the ability of a peptide with the same sequence as the XIP region to bind to immobilized phospholipid vesicles. (125)I-labeled XIP bound avidly to vesicles containing only a low concentration (<3%) of PIP(2). The binding was specific, in that binding was not displaced by other basic peptides. The effects of altering the sequence of XIP peptides also indicated binding specificity. Second, we examined the functional response to PIP(2) of exchangers with mutated XIP regions. Outward Na/Ca exchange currents were measured using the giant excised patch technique. The mutated exchangers either had no inactivation or accelerated inactivation. In both cases, the exchangers no longer responded to PIP(2) or to PIP(2) antibodies. Overall, the data indicate that the affinity of the endogenous XIP region for PIP(2) is an important determinant of the inactivation process.

5-bisphosphate (PIP 2) affects profoundly several cardiac ion channels and transporters, and studies of PIP2-sensitive currents in excised patches suggest that PIP 2 can be synthesized and broken down within 30 s. To test when, and if, total phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate (PIP) and PIP2 levels actually change in intact heart, we used a new, nonradioactive HPLC method to quantify anionic phospholipids. Total PIP and PIP2 levels (10-30 mol/kg wet weight) do not change, or even increase, with activation of G␣ q/phospholipase C (PLC)-dependent pathways by carbachol (50 M), phenylephrine (50 M), and endothelin-1 (0.3 M). Adenosine (0.2 mM) and phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (1M) both cause 30% reduction of PIP2 in ventricles, suggesting that diacylglycerol (DAG)-dependent mechanisms negatively regulate cardiac PIP2. PIP2, but not PIP, increases reversibly by 30% during electrical stimulation (2 Hz for 5 min) in guinea pig left atria; the increase is blocked by nickel (2 mM). Both PIP and PIP2 increase within 3 min in hypertonic solutions, roughly in proportion to osmolarity, and similar effects occur in multiple cell lines. Inhibitors of several volume-sensitive signaling mechanisms do not affect these responses, suggesting that PIP2 metabolism might be sensitive to membrane tension, per se. phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate; phosphatidylinositol; diacylglycerol; phorbol ester; cardiac muscle; G protein-coupled receptors; phospholipase C; cell volume PHOSPHATIDYLINOSITOL 4,5-BISPHOSPHATE (PIP 2 ) is the phospholipid precursor of three second messengers, D-myo-inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP 3 ), diacylglycerol (DAG), and phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-trisphosphate (PIP 3 ) (66). At the same time, PIP 2 serves other cellular functions. It anchors and modulates the function of numerous cell signaling proteins and cytoskeleton at the cell membrane (11,17,42,65), including at least one transcription factor that is released by phospholipase C (PLC) activation (60). In addition, PIP 2 metabolism is coupled to membrane trafficking, including some forms of exo-and endocytosis (7, 46). Finally, PIP 2 modulates the function of phospholipases (14), receptor kinases (16, 52), and ion transporters and ion channels (25). Especially, the anchoring/recruitment functions and the modulatory functions of PIP 2 beg the question as to how, and if, PIP 2 might be used as a cell signal. For cardiac physiology, an answer to this question seems especially important at this time, because sarcolemmal mechanisms that affect both cardiac contraction (e.g., Na ϩ /Ca 2ϩ exchange) and contraction frequency [e.g., G protein-coupled inwardly rectifying K ϩ (GIRK) channels] are strongly PIP 2 dependent (27).The minimum biochemical mechanisms involved in cardiac myocyte PIP 2 metabolism (39) are summarized in Fig. 1. The dominant pathway of PIP 2 synthesis, as in other cells, is probably the sequential phosphorylation in the sarcolemma of phosphatidylinositol (PI) at the 4-and then the 5-positions of inositol (66). As in other cells, PIP 2 is hydr...