Objective: To describe the vitamin D status of women living in two Asian cities, -Jakarta (61S) and , to examine the association between plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D and parathyroid hormone (PTH) concentrations, and to determine a threshold for plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D above which there is no further suppression of PTH. Also, to determine whether dietary calcium intake influences the relationship between PTH and 25-hydroxyvitamin D. Design: Cross-sectional. Setting: Jakarta, Indonesia and Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Participants: A convenience sample of 504 non-pregnant women 18-40 years. Main measures: Plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D and PTH. Results: The mean 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration was 48 nmol/l. Less than 1% of women had a 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration indicative of vitamin D deficiency (o17.5 nmol/l); whereas, over 60% of women had a 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration indicative of insufficiency (o50 nmol/l). We estimate that 52 nmol/l was the threshold concentration for plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D above which no further suppression of PTH occurred. Below and above this concentration the slopes of the regression lines were À0.18 (different from 0; P ¼ 0.003) and À0.01 (P ¼ 0.775), respectively. The relation between vitamin D status and parathyroid hormone concentration did not differ between women with low, medium or high calcium intakes (P ¼ 0.611); however, even in the highest tertile of calcium intake, mean calcium intake was only 657 mg/d. Conclusion: On the basis of maximal suppression of PTH we estimate an optimal 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration of B 50 nmol/l. Many women had a 25-hydroxyvitamin D below this concentration and may benefit from improved vitamin D status.

We investigated whether weekly iron supplementation was as effective as the national daily iron supplementation program in Indonesia in improving iron status at near term in pregnancy. In addition, we examined whether weekly vitamin A and iron supplementation was more efficacious than weekly supplementation with iron alone. One group of pregnant women (n = 122)was supplemented weekly with iron (120 mg Fe as FeSO4) and folic acid (500 microg); another group (n = 121) received the same amount of iron and folic acid plus vitamin A [4800 retinol equivalents (RE)]. A third ("daily") group (n = 123), participating in the national iron plus folic acid supplementation program, was also recruited. Data on subjects with complete biochemical data are reported (n = 190). At near term, hemoglobin concentrations increased, whereas serum ferritin concentrations decreased significantly in the weekly vitamin A and iron group, suggesting that vitamin A improved utilization of iron for hematopoiesis. Iron status in the weekly iron group was not different from that of the "daily" group. However, iron status decreased with daily supplementation if <50 iron tablets were ingested. Serum transferrin receptor concentrations increased in all groups (P < 0.01). Serum retinol concentrations were maintained in the weekly vitamin A and iron group, but decreased in the other two groups (P < 0.01). Thus, delivery of iron supplements on a weekly basis can be as effective as ona daily basis if compliance can be ensured. Addition of vitamin A to the supplement improved hemoglobin concentration.

One of the health problems in Indonesia is the high prevalence of stunting in infants. Determinants and specifically the relative contribution of prenatal and postnatal factors to growth and nutritional status of Indonesian infants were investigated. Newborn infants, from women recruited at approximately 18 wk of pregnancy from 9 rural villages in West Java, Indonesia, were followed until 12-15 mo of age. Weight, length, morbidity, breast-feeding and food intake were assessed monthly. Determinants of length and weight increase and nutritional status reflected by Z-scores were evaluated using multiple linear regression. Neonatal weight (3.2 +/- 0.5 kg) and length (49.7 +/- 2.2 cm) were reasonable. However, growth started to falter at 6-7 mo of age, resulting in prevalences of 24% stunting and 32% underweight at 12 mo of age. The multiple regression models explained 19-41% of the variation in growth and nutritional status of infants. Neonatal weight (beta = 0.285) and length (beta = 0.492) were the strongest positive predictors of weight-for-age and height-for-age Z-scores, respectively. Fever was negatively associated with weight increase (beta = -0.144) and weight-for-age (beta = -0.142) and weight-for-height Z-scores (beta = -0.255) but not with length increase or height-for-age Z-scores. Intake of complementary foods was positively associated with increases in weight (beta = 0.190) and length (beta = 0.179) and nutritional status of infants (beta = 0.136-0.194). In conclusion, in this rural population in West Java, neonatal weight and especially length, reflecting the prenatal environment, are the most important predictors of infant nutritional status.

Dietary diversity involves adequate intake of macronutrient and micronutrient. The inclusion of animal source foods (ASF) in the diet helps prevent multiple nutrient deficiencies and any resultant, linear growth retardation. The objective of the current study was to assess the relationship between dietary diversity, ASF consumption and height-for-age z-score (HAZ) among children aged 12-59 months old across a 1-year observation. This longitudinal observational study without controls was conducted among four age groups: 12-23 months (n 57), 24-35 months (n 56), 36-47 months (n 58) and 48-59 months (n 56). Anthropometry and dietary intake were measured during each of four visits at 16-20-week intervals. The general characteristics and other observations were only collected at baseline and endline. During the year-long study period, approximately 27 % of the children ate a diverse diet (consumed ≥6 out of 9 food groups) according to ≥3 visits. ASF consumption was high, particularly for eggs, poultry, processed meats and liquid milk. Yet, micronutrient intake inadequacy, especially of Zn, Ca, Fe and vitamin A, was highly prevalent. A multivariate regression analysis showed that the consumption of a diverse diet and ASF was not significantly associated with the HAZ at endline, after controlling for demographic characteristics and the baseline HAZ. The consumption of a diverse diet was significantly associated with Ca intake adequacy. Moreover, ASF consumption was significantly associated with adequate intake of protein and micronutrients, particularly vitamin A, Ca and Zn. Thus, the recommendation is to continue and strengthen the promotion of consuming a diverse diet that includes ASF in supporting the linear growth of young children.Key words: Dietary diversity: Animal source foods: Children: Linear growth: Indonesia Linear growth faltering is a major problem among children in Indonesia, as shown by the high prevalence of stunting. The national survey in 2013 showed that the growth of 37·2 % of children <5 years old was stunted. This figure is not significantly different from the results of the 2007 national survey (1) . The consequences of stunting include increased child mortality (2) , prolonged illness, delayed psychomotor development and negative outcomes in adulthood (3) .The inadequate intake of a quality diet rich in energy, protein and micronutrients is among the main contributing factors for stunting (4) , and it is common in developing countries such as Indonesia. Recent studies have shown that among Indonesian children aged 2-5 years the proportions of inadequate intake of energy and protein were 60·5 and 35·8 %, respectively. The proportions of inadequate intake of micronutrients such as Ca, Fe, vitamin C and vitamin A were even higher (80·9, 83·5, 84·3 and 79·1 %, respectively) (5) .Dietary diversity is one of the key elements of a quality diet, and it is thought to enhance the probability of the adequate intake of essential nutrients to promote good health. A more diverse diet is highly corre...

Many Indonesian infants have an inadequate nutritional status, which may be due in part to inadequate maternal nutrition during pregnancy. This study was designed to investigate whether infant nutritional status could be improved by maternal vitamin A and Fe supplementation during gestation. Mothers of these infants from five villages had been randomly assigned on an individual basis, supervised and double-blind, to receive supplementation once weekly from approximately 18 weeks of pregnancy until delivery. Supplementation comprised 120 mg Fe and 500 μg folic acid with or without 4800 retinol equivalent vitamin A. Mothers of infants from four other villages who participated in the national Fe and folic acid supplementation programme were also recruited; intake of tablets was not supervised. Anthropometric and biochemical parameters of infants and their mothers were assessed approximately 4 months after delivery. Infants of mothers supplemented with vitamin A plus Fe had higher serum retinol concentrations than infants of mothers supplemented with Fe alone. However, the proportion of infants with serum retinol concentrations <0·70 μmol/l was >70 % in all groups. Maternal and infant serum retinol concentrations were correlated. Fe status, weight and length of infants were similar in all groups. Fe status of girls was better than that of boys, but boys were heavier and longer. We conclude that supplementation with vitamin A in conjunction with Fe supplementation of women during pregnancy benefits vitamin A status of their infants. However, considering the large proportion of infants with marginal serum retinol concentrations, it may still be necessary to increase their vitamin A intake.

Objective: Increasing the consumption of Fe-rich foods and thus improving Fe bioavailability without significantly increasing diet cost is the most sustainable intervention for improving Fe intake. We assessed the effect of supplementary food consisting of fermented soyabean (tempeh) and vitamin C-rich fruit consumed during pregnancy on maternal iron deficiency (ID). Design: Pregnant women were randomly allocated by village into optimized diet and control groups. Supplementary food was given 6 d/week at home. The average weekly food provided comprised 600 g of tempeh, 30 g of meat, 350 g of guava, 300 g of papaya and 100 g of orange. Hb, ferritin and transferrin receptor (TfR) concentrations were measured at 12-20 and at 32-36 weeks of gestation. Setting: Thirty-nine villages in Indonesia. Subjects: Pregnant women (12-20 weeks of gestation, n 252). Results: At baseline, mean Hb, ferritin and TfR concentrations and body Fe concentration were within the normal range and did not differ between groups. At near term, mean Hb, ferritin and body Fe decreased, whereas mean TfR increased significantly in both groups. The mean changes in Fe status were similar in both groups. In Fe-deficient women, consumption of an optimized diet was associated with smaller decreases in Hb (1?02 (95 % CI 0?98, 1?07) g/l; P 5 0?058), ferritin (1?42 (95 % CI 1?16, 1?75) mg/l; P 5 0?046) and body Fe (2?57 (95 % CI 1?71, 3?43) mg/kg; P 5 0?073) concentrations, compared with a state of no intervention. Fe-deficient women at baseline benefited more from supplementary food compared with Fe-replete women. Conclusions: Daily supplementary food containing tempeh and vitamin C-rich fruits during pregnancy might have positive effects on maternal ID.

The CoD analysis is a useful entry point for discussions on constraints on achieving adequate nutrition in different areas and on possible ways to improve nutrition, including the use of special foods and different distribution strategies.

Background: Vitamin A deficiency continues to be a major public health problem affecting developing countries where people eat mostly rice as a staple food. In Asia, rice provides up to 80% of the total daily energy intake.Objective: We used existing data sets from Bangladesh, Indonesia, and the Philippines, where dietary intakes have been quantified at the individual level to 1) determine the rice and vitamin A intake in nonpregnant, nonlactating women of reproductive age and in nonbreastfed children 1–3 y old and 2) simulate the amount of change that could be achieved in the prevalence of inadequate intake of vitamin A if rice biofortified with β-carotene were consumed instead of the rice consumed at present.Design: We considered a range of 4–20 parts per million (ppm) of β-carotene content and 10–70% substitution levels for the biofortified rice. Software was used to estimate usual rice and vitamin A intake for the simulation analyses.Results: In an analysis by country, the substitution of biofortified rice for white rice in the optimistic scenario (20 ppm and 70% substitution) decreased the prevalence of vitamin A inadequacy from baseline 78% in women and 71% in children in Bangladesh. In Indonesia and the Philippines, the prevalence of inadequacy fell by 55–60% in women and dropped by nearly 30% in children from baseline.Conclusions: The results of the simulation analysis were striking in that even low substitution levels and modest increases in the β-carotene of rice produced a meaningful decrease in the prevalence of inadequate intake of vitamin A. Increasing the substitution levels had a greater impact than increasing the β-carotene content by >12 ppm.