Identifying the distribution of users' transportation modes is an essential part of travel demand analysis and transportation planning. With the advent of ubiquitous GPS-enabled devices (e.g., a smartphone), a cost-effective approach for inferring commuters' mobility mode(s) is to leverage their GPS trajectories. A majority of studies have proposed mode inference models based on hand-crafted features and traditional machine learning algorithms. However, manual features engender some major drawbacks including vulnerability to traffic and environmental conditions as well as possessing human's bias in creating efficient features. One way to overcome these issues is by utilizing Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) schemes that are capable of automatically driving high-level features from the raw input. Accordingly, in this paper, we take advantage of CNN architectures so as to predict travel modes based on only raw GPS trajectories, where the modes are labeled as walk, bike, bus, driving, and train. Our key contribution is designing the layout of the CNN's input layer in such a way that not only is adaptable with the CNN schemes but represents fundamental motion characteristics of a moving object including speed, acceleration, jerk, and bearing rate. Furthermore, we ameliorate the quality of GPS logs through several data preprocessing steps. Using the clean input layer, a variety of CNN configurations are evaluated to achieve the best CNN architecture. The highest accuracy of 84.8% has been achieved through the ensemble of the best CNN configuration. In this research, we contrast our methodology with traditional machine learning algorithms as well as the seminal and most related studies to demonstrate the superiority of our framework. GPS is a ubiquitous positioning tool that records spatiotemporal information of moving objects carrying a GPS-enabled device (K. Heaslip). Transportation Research Part C 86 (2018) 360-371 0968-090X/ Published by Elsevier Ltd.T (e.g., a smartphone). The main advantageous of smart phones, compared to other GPS-equipped devices, is its enormous market penetration rate in a large number of countries and being relatively close to users nearly all of the time. As a consequence, such a dominant and area-wide sensing technology is capable of creating massive trajectory data of vehicles and people. A GPS trajectory, also called movement, of an object is constructed by connecting GPS points of their GPS-enabled device. A GPS point, here, is denoted as (lat, long, t), where lat, long, and t are latitude, longitude, and timestamp, respectively. The study of individuals' mobility patterns from GPS datasets has led to a variety of behavioral applications including learning significant locations, anomaly detection, locationbased activity recognition, and identification of transport modes (Lin and Hsu, 2014), in which the latter is the focus of this study. Nonetheless, GPS devices can only record time and positional characteristics of travels without any explicit information on utilized transport modes....
Identifying users' transportation modes (e.g., bike, bus, train, and car) is a key step towards many transportation related problems including (but not limited to) transport planning, transit demand analysis, auto ownership, and transportation emissions analysis. Traditionally, the information for analyzing travelers' behavior for choosing transport mode(s) was obtained through travel surveys. High cost, low-response rate, time-consuming manual data collection, and misreporting are the main demerits of the survey-based approaches. With the rapid growth of ubiquitous GPS-enabled devices (e.g., smartphones), a constant stream of users' trajectory data can be recorded. A user's GPS trajectory is a sequence of GPS points, recorded by means of a GPS-enabled device, in which a GPS point contains the information of the device geographic location at a particular moment. In this research, users' GPS trajectories, rather than traditional resources, are harnessed to predict their transportation mode by means of statistical models. With respect to the statistical models, a wide range of studies have developed travel mode detection models using on hand-designed attributes and classical learning techniques. Nonetheless, hand-crafted features cause some main shortcomings including vulnerability to traffic uncertainties and biased engineering justification in generating effective features. A potential solution to address these issues is by leveraging deep learning frameworks that are capable of capturing abstract features from the raw input in an automated fashion. Thus, in this thesis, deep learning architectures are exploited in order to identify transport modes based on only raw GPS tracks. It is worth noting that a significant portion of trajectories in GPS data might not be annotated by a transport mode and the acquisition of labeled data is a more expensive and labor-intensive task in comparison with collecting unlabeled data. Thus, utilizing the unlabeled GPS trajectory (i.e., the GPS trajectories that have not been annotated by a transport mode) is a cost-effective approach for improving the prediction quality of the travel mode detection model. Therefore, the unlabeled GPS data are also leveraged by developing a novel deep-learning architecture that is capable of extracting information from both labeled and unlabeled data. The experimental results demonstrate the superiority of the proposed models over the state-of-the-art methods in literature with respect to several performance metrics.
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