Cancer cells subvert host immune surveillance by altering immune checkpoint (IC) proteins. Some Epstein−Barr virus (EBV)-associated tumors have higher Programmed Cell Death Ligand, PD-L1 expression. However, it is not known how EBV alters ICs in the context of its preferred host, the B lymphocyte and in derived lymphomas. Here, we found that latency III-expressing Burkitt lymphoma (BL), diffuse large B-cell lymphomas (DLBCL) or their EBNA2-transfected derivatives express high PD-L1. In a DLBCL model, EBNA2 but not LMP1 is sufficient to induce PD-L1. Latency III-expressing DLBCL biopsies showed high levels of PD-L1. The PD-L1 targeting oncosuppressor microRNA miR-34a was downregulated in EBNA2-transfected lymphoma cells. We identified early B-cell factor 1 (EBF1) as a repressor of miR34a transcription. Short hairpin RNA (shRNA)-mediated knockdown of EBF1 was sufficient to induce miR-34a transcription, which in turn reduced PD-L1. MiR-34a reconstitution in EBNA2-transfected DLBCL reduced PD-L1 expression and increased its immunogenicity in mixed lymphocyte reactions (MLR) and in three-dimensional biomimetic microfluidic chips. Given the importance of PD-L1 inhibition in immunotherapy and miR-34a dysregulation in cancers, our findings may have important implications for combinatorial immunotherapy, which include IC inhibiting antibodies and miR-34a, for EBV-associated cancers.

SummaryDeficiencies in DNA double-strand break (DSB) repair lead to genetic instability, a recognized cause of cancer initiation and evolution. We report that the retinoblastoma tumor suppressor protein (RB1) is required for DNA DSB repair by canonical non-homologous end-joining (cNHEJ). Support of cNHEJ involves a mechanism independent of RB1’s cell-cycle function and depends on its amino terminal domain with which it binds to NHEJ components XRCC5 and XRCC6. Cells with engineered loss of RB family function as well as cancer-derived cells with mutational RB1 loss show substantially reduced levels of cNHEJ. RB1 variants disabled for the interaction with XRCC5 and XRCC6, including a cancer-associated variant, are unable to support cNHEJ despite being able to confer cell-cycle control. Our data identify RB1 loss as a candidate driver of structural genomic instability and a causative factor for cancer somatic heterogeneity and evolution.

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection converts resting human B cells into permanently proliferating lymphoblastoid cell lines (LCLs). The Epstein-Barr virus nuclear antigen 2 (EBNA2) plays a key role in this process. It preferentially binds to B cell enhancers and establishes a specific viral and cellular gene expression program in LCLs. The cellular DNA binding factor CBF1/CSL serves as a sequence specific chromatin anchor for EBNA2. The ubiquitous expression of this highly conserved protein raises the question whether additional cellular factors might determine EBNA2 chromatin binding selectively in B cells. Here we used CBF1 deficient B cells to identify cellular genes up or downregulated by EBNA2 as well as CBF1 independent EBNA2 chromatin binding sites. Apparently, CBF1 independent EBNA2 target genes and chromatin binding sites can be identified but are less frequent than CBF1 dependent EBNA2 functions. CBF1 independent EBNA2 binding sites are highly enriched for EBF1 binding motifs. We show that EBNA2 binds to EBF1 via its N-terminal domain. CBF1 proficient and deficient B cells require EBF1 to bind to CBF1 independent binding sites. Our results identify EBF1 as a co-factor of EBNA2 which conveys B cell specificity to EBNA2.

Advanced adult soft-tissue sarcomas (STSs) are rare tumors with a dismal prognosis and limited systemic treatment options. STSs may originate from mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs); the latter have mainly been isolated from adult bone marrow as plastic-adherent cells with differentiation capacity into mesenchymal tissues. Recently, a panel of antibodies has been established that allows for the prospective isolation of primary MSCs with high selectivity. Similar to cancer stem cells in other malignancies, sarcoma stem cells may bear immunophenotypic similarity with the corresponding precursor, that is, MSCs. We therefore set out to establish the expression pattern of MSC markers in sarcoma cell lines and primary tumor samples by flow cytometry. In addition, fibroblasts from different sources were examined. The results document a significant amount of MSC markers shared by sarcoma cells. The expression pattern includes uniformly expressed markers, as well as MSC markers that only stained subpopulations of sarcoma cells. Expression of W5C5, W8B2 (tissue nonspecific alkaline phosphatase [TNAP]), CD344 (frizzled-4), and CD271 marked subpopulations displaying increased proliferation potential. Moreover, CD271+ cells displayed in vitro doxorubicin resistance and an increased capacity to form spheres under serum-free conditions. Interestingly, another set of antigens, including the bona fide progenitor cell markers CD117 and CD133, were not expressed. Comparative expression patterns of novel MSC markers in sarcoma cells, as well as fibroblasts and MSCs, are presented. Our data suggest a hierarchical cytoarchitecture of the most common adult type sarcomas and introduce W5C5, TNAP, CD344, and CD271 as potential sarcoma progenitor cell markers.