Tollip is an interactor of the interleukin-1 receptor involved in its activation. The endosomal turnover of ubiquitylated IL-1RI is also controlled by Tollip. Furthermore, together with Tom1, Tollip has a general role in endosomal protein traffic. This work shows that Tollip is involved in the sumoylation process. Using the yeast two-hybrid technique, we have isolated new Tollip partners including two sumoylation enzymes, SUMO-1 and the transcriptional repressor Daxx. The interactions were confirmed by GST-pull down experiments and immunoprecipitation of the co-expressed recombinants. More specifically, we show that the TIR domain of the cytoplasmic region of IL-1RI is a sumoylation target of Tollip. The sumoylated and unsumoylated RanGAP-1 protein also interacts with Tollip, suggesting a possible role in RanGAP-1 modification and nuclear-cytoplasmic protein translocation. In fact, Tollip is found in the nuclear bodies of SAOS-2/IL-1RI cells where it colocalizes with SUMO-1 and the Daxx repressor. We conclude that Tollip is involved in the control of both nuclear and cytoplasmic protein traffic, through two different and often contrasting processes: ubiquitylation and sumoylation.
The pursuit of status on the international stage through participation in the Crimean War was critical to Italy’s drive toward unification. Piedmont’s Prime Minster Count Camillo di Cavour’s entry into the wartime alliance with France and Great Britain was a major component in his nation-building project, which Italy’s enhanced status after the war brought to fruition. Primary sources highlight the nexus between status competition at the international level and domestic political outcomes. Similar processes can explain the success and failure of other nation-building enterprises.
Why do policymakers pursue cultural policies? The existing literature presents several potential answers but no study has surveyed them in a comprehensive way. In this essay, I examine a diverse array of factors behind cultural policymaking. Combining domestic and international perspectives, I identify three major motivations: intrinsic demand, constituency demands and nation-building objectives. I employ a mix of qualitative and quantitative evidence to explore the hypotheses stemming from these different decision-making dynamics.
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