This study focused on identifying the most important factors determining performance in elite-level air rifle shooting technique. Forty international- and national-level shooters completed a simulated air rifle shooting competition series. From a total of 13 795 shots in 319 tests, shooting score and 17 aiming point trajectory variables were measured with an optoelectronic device and six postural balance variables were measured with force platform. Principal component analysis revealed six components in the air rifle shooting technique: aiming time, stability of hold, measurement time, cleanness of triggering, aiming accuracy, and timing of triggering. Multiple regression analysis identified four of those, namely stability of hold, cleanness of triggering, aiming accuracy, and timing of triggering as the most important predictors of shooting performance, accounting for 81% of the variance in shooting score. The direct effect of postural balance on performance was small, accounting for less than 1% of the variance in shooting score. Indirectly, the effect can be greater through a more stable holding ability, to which postural balance was correlated significantly (R = 0.55, P < 0.001). The results of the present study can be used in assessing athletes' technical strengths and weaknesses and in directing training programs on distinct shooting technical components.

The aim of this study was to identify performance-determining factors in biathlon standing shooting in rest and after intense exercise. Eight Finnish national- and nine junior-team biathletes participated in the study. Participants fired 40 resting shots (REST) and 2 × 5 competition simulation shots (LOAD) after 5 minutes of roller skiing at 95% of peak heart rate. Hit percentage, aiming point trajectory and postural balance were measured from each shot. Cleanness of triggering (ATV, movement of the aiming point 0-0.2 second before the shot) and vertical stability of hold (DevY) were the most important components affecting shooting performance both in REST (DevY, R = -0.61, P < .01; ATV, R = -0.65, P < .01) and in LOAD (DevY, R = -0.50, P < .05; ATV, R = -0.77, P < .001). Postural balance, especially in shooting direction, was related to DevY and ATV. Stability of hold in horizontal (F(1,15) = 7.025, P < .05) and vertical (F(1,15) = 21.285, P < .001) directions, aiming accuracy (F(1,15) = 9.060, P < .01), and cleanness of triggering (F(1,15) = 59.584, P < .001) decreased from REST to LOAD, accompanied by a decrease in postural balance. National- and junior-team biathletes differed only in hit percentage in REST (92 ± 8% vs 81 ± 8%, P < .05) and left leg postural balance in shooting direction in LOAD (0.31 ± 0.18 mm vs 0.52 ± 0.20 mm, P < .05), and the intense exercise affected the shooting technical components similarly in both national and junior groups. Biathletes should focus on cleanness of triggering and vertical stability of hold in order to improve biathlon standing shooting performance. More stable postural balance in shooting direction could help to improve these shooting technical components.

The purpose of this study was to analyze whether the same shooting technical components determining performance in testing situation also affect performance in competition situation and how the technical skill level of these components changes from training to competition. Thirteen Finnish national (10) and junior national (3) rifle team members participated in the study. Participants were measured in competition and training situation within a five-day period. Shooting score, aiming point trajectory and postural balance were measured from both situations. Shooting performance decreased from training to competition situation (10.31 AE 0.13 vs. 10.14 AE 0.17, p < 0.05), accompanied by a decrease in holding ability, aiming accuracy, cleanness of triggering and postural balance. A multiple regression equation based on holding ability, aiming accuracy, cleanness of triggering and timing of triggering correlated with the competition situation shooting results (R ¼ 0.76, p < 0.01). Changes in shooting performance from training to competition situation were most strongly related to the changes in horizontal holding ability (R ¼ À 0.71, p < 0.01). Athletes and coaches should develop competition strategies and psychological training interventions in order to be able to maintain the horizontal holding ability in competition at training situation level.

The shooting-technique testing used in the current study seems to be a valid and useful tool for long-term performance assessment. Stability of hold, cleanness of triggering, and postural balance can be further developed even at the elite level, resulting in improved competition performances.

To investigate differences in shooting performance and performance related factors between the HOLD and the TIMING strategy in biathlon standing shooting. Both groups demonstrated similar shooting performance both at REST and in RACE. In HOLD, better shooting performance was related to higher holding time (HT) REST r=-0.88, p=0.001 RACE r=-0.73, p=0.016 higher aiming accuracy (COG) REST r=0.93, p<0.001 RACE r=0.72, p=0.018 (Figure 3). In TIMING, better shooting performance was related to lower mean velocity (MV) REST r=0.77, p=0.009 RACE r=0.88, p=0.001 lower absolute triggering value (ATV) REST r=0.82, p=0.003 RACE r=0.72, p=0.012 (Figure 3).

The purpose of the present study was to analyze micro-pacing strategies in cross-country skiing, and their relation to section and total race times. Eleven competitive female cross-country skiers were tracked during a classic sprint time-trial race using a global navigation satellite system (GNSS) unit. A coordinate mapping procedure was applied to the GNSS unit measurements to analyze the instantaneous velocities and split times. The track was divided into nine sections and individual section times were calculated. Statistical parametric mapping (SPM) was used to analyze the relationships between instantaneous velocity and section or total race time. SPM analyses revealed two uphill sections and one flat section where greater instantaneous velocities were related to faster total race times. The first major uphill section on the track demonstrated a more conservative micro-pacing strategy (SPM supra-threshold clusters along the entire uphill, p < 0.05–0.001) compared to the more aggressive strategy used in the last uphill section (clusters on the first half of the uphill, p < 0.05–0.001). Faster flat section times were associated with greater instantaneous velocities throughout the section ( p < 0.001), while faster downhill section times were related to greater instantaneous velocities at the top of the downhill ( p < 0.001), and in the downhill turns ( p < 0.001). In conclusion, micro-pacing strategies were related to overall skiing performance and distinct track sections were identified where instantaneous velocities were related to section or total race times. In order to improve skiing performance, athletes could focus on more aggressive pacing early on in the “end spurt”, during the transitions from uphill to flat sections, and during the transitions from flat or uphill to downhill sections.

This study investigated the most important factors determining biathlon prone shooting performance. Ten female and 16 male biathletes (age 19.9 ± 2.9 years) from the national teams of Finland and Vuokatti‐Ruka Sports Academy performed 6 × 5 biathlon prone shooting shots without physical stress under laboratory conditions. Shooting performance and multiple aiming point trajectory variables were measured together with an analysis of triggering force. Based on the aiming point trajectory data principal component analysis, we identified four technical components in biathlon prone shooting: stability of hold, aiming accuracy, cleanness of triggering, and timing of triggering. Multiple regression analysis (MRA) further determined that cleanness of triggering, aiming accuracy, and timing of triggering accounted for 80% of mean shooting performance (p < 0.001). Better stability of hold, aiming accuracy and cleanness of triggering were directly associated with better shooting performance (0.62 ≤ |r| ≥0.79, all p < 0.001). Better stability of hold measures were also associated with better cleanness of triggering, and higher pre‐shot trigger force levels were associated with better stability of hold and cleanness of triggering. These results indicate that with both direct and indirect effects on performance, stability of hold seems to be a general prerequisite for successful biathlon shooting. The results also highlight the importance of aiming accuracy, cleanness and timing of triggering, along with a high pre‐shot trigger force level. The variables identified in this study could be used to assess biathletes’ performance in the most relevant shooting technical aspects to guide the emphasis of their shooting training.

This study examined the micro-pacing strategies during a distance freestyle cross-country (XC) skiing competition. Nine female and 10 male highly trained XC skiers wore a GNSS device during a FIS-sanctioned race. The course was ~4900 m; women completed two-laps; men completed three-laps. The course was divided into uphill (S1, S3, S5, S7), downhill (S2, S4, S6, S8), and flat (S9) sections for analyses. Statistical parametric mapping was used to determine the course positions (clusters) where total race time or section time was significantly associated with instantaneous skiing speed. Total race time was associated with instantaneous skiing speed during a cluster in S1 on lap 2 for both sexes (t ≥ 5.899, p ≤ 0.008). The two longest uphill sections (S1; S5) and the flat section (S9) contained clusters where section times were related to instantaneous skiing speed for both sexes (p &lt; 0.05). The fastest woman gained 6.9 s on the slowest woman during a cluster in S1 on lap 1 and 7.3 s during a cluster in S9 on lap 1. The fastest man gained 51.7 s on the slowest man over all clusters in S5 over the 3 laps combined. Compared to skiers with longer total race times, skiers with shorter race times skied with faster instantaneous speeds in some clusters of the uphill sections, as well as on the flat section of the course. This study also identified different relative micro-pacing strategies for women and men during freestyle distance XC skiing races. Finally, statistical parametric mapping analyses can help to identify individual strengths and weaknesses for guiding training programs and optimise competition pacing strategies.