Summary Increasing evidence has shown that population dynamics are qualitatively different from single cell behaviors. Reporters to probe dynamic, single cell behaviors are desirable, yet relatively scarce. Here we describe an easy-to-implement and generalizable technology to generate reporters of kinase activity for individual cells. Our technology converts phosphorylation into a nucleocytoplasmic shuttling event that can be measured by epifluorescence microscopy. Our reporters reproduce kinase activity for multiple types of kinases, and allow for calculation of active kinase concentrations via a mathematical model. Using this technology, we made several experimental observations that had previously been technically unfeasible, including stimulus-dependent patterns of c-Jun N-Terminal Kinase (JNK) and Nuclear Factor kappa B (NF-κB) activation. We also measured JNK, p38 and ERK activities simultaneously, finding that p38 regulates the peak number, but not the intensity, of ERK fluctuations. Our approach opens the possibility of analyzing a wide range of kinase-mediated processes in individual cells.

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Ca2+ signals control cell migration by regulating forward movement and cell adhesion. However, it is not well understood how Ca2+-regulatory proteins and second messengers are spatially organized in migrating cells. Here we show that receptor tyrosine kinase and phospholipase C signaling are restricted to the front of migrating endothelial leader cells, triggering local Ca2+ pulses, local depletion of Ca2+ in the endoplasmic reticulum, and local activation of STIM1, supporting pulsatile front retraction and adhesion. At the same time, the mediator of store-operated Ca2+ influx STIM1 is transported by microtubule plus ends to the front. Furthermore, higher Ca2+ pump rates in the front relative to the back of the plasma membrane enable effective local Ca2+ signaling by locally decreasing basal Ca2+. Finally, polarized phospholipase C signaling generates a diacylglycerol gradient towards the front that promotes persistent forward migration. Thus, cells employ an integrated Ca2+ control system with polarized Ca2+ signaling proteins and second messengers to synergistically promote directed cell migration.

Eukaryotic organelles can interact with each other through stable junctions where the two membranes are kept in close apposition. The junction that connects the endoplasmic reticulum to the plasma membrane (ER-PM junction) is unique in providing a direct communication link between the ER and the PM. In a recently discovered signaling process, STIM (stromal-interacting molecule) proteins sense a drop in ER Ca2+ levels and directly activate Orai PM Ca2+ channels across the junction space. In an inverse process, a voltage-gated PM Ca2+ channel can directly open ER ryanodine-receptor Ca2+ channels in striated-muscle cells. Although ER-PM junctions were first described 50 years ago, their broad importance in Ca2+ signaling, as well as in the regulation of cholesterol and phosphatidylinositol lipid transfer, has only recently been realized. Here, we discuss research from different fields to provide a broad perspective on the structures and unique roles of ER-PM junctions in controlling signaling and metabolic processes.

Diacylglycerol (DAG) signaling relies on the presence of conserved domain 1 (C1) in its target proteins. Phospholipase C-dependent generation of DAG after T cell receptor (TCR) triggering is essential for the correct immune response onset. Accordingly, two C1-containing proteins expressed in T lymphocytes, Ras guanyl nucleotide-releasing protein1 (Ras-GRP1) and protein kinase C (PKC), were shown to be fundamental for T-cell activation and proliferation. Although containing the same regulatory domain, they are proposed to relocate to distinct subcellular locations in response to TCR triggering. Here we studied intracellular localization of RasGRP1 and PKC C1 domains in living Jurkat T cells. The results demonstrate that, in the absence of significant primary sequence differences, the C1 domains of these proteins show specific localization within the cell and distinct responses to pharmacological stimulation and TCR triggering. These differences help explain the divergent localization and distinct functional roles of the full-length proteins, which contains them. The properties of these DAG-binding modules allow their characterization as functional markers that discriminate between DAG pools. Finally, we show that by binding to different diacylglycerol forms, overexpression of distinct C1 modules can attenuate DAG-dependent signals originating from the plasma or internal membranes. This is shown by analyzing the contribution of these two lipid pools to PLC-dependent Ras activation in response to TCR triggering.

Whole-cell modeling promises to facilitate scientific inquiry by prioritizing future experiments based on existing datasets. To test this promise, we compared simulated growth rates with new measurements for all viable single-gene disruption strains in Mycoplasma genitalium. The discrepancies between simulations and experiments led to novel model predictions about specific kinetic parameters that we subsequently validated. These findings represent the first application of whole-cell modeling to accelerate biological discovery.

Diacylglycerol kinase ␣ (DAGK␣), like all type I DAGKs, has calcium regulatory motifs that act as negative regulators of enzyme activity and localization. Accordingly, DAGK␣ is activated by phospholipase C-coupled receptors in a calcium-dependent manner. One of the first functions attributed to DAGK␣ in lymphocytes was that of regulating interleukin 2-induced cell cycle entry. Interleukin-2 nonetheless exerts its action in the absence of cytosolic calcium increase. We have studied alternative receptor-derived signals to explain calciumindependent DAGK␣ activation, and show that DAGK␣ is stimulated by Src-like kinase-dependent phosphoinositide 3 kinase (PI3K) activation in lymphocytes. Our results demonstrate that, in vivo, the increase in cellular levels of PI3K products is sufficient to induce DAGK␣ activation, allowing DAGK␣ relocation to the intact lymphocyte plasma membrane. This activation is isoformspecific, because other type I DAGKs are not subject to this type of regulation. These studies are the first to describe a pathway in which, in the absence of receptorregulated calcium increase, DAGK␣ activation and membrane localization is a direct consequence of PI3K activation.

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